Muhammad রাসূল ﷺ
Muhammad রাসূল ﷺ
রাসূল ﷺ
রাসূল ﷺ
রাসূল ﷺ
রাসূল ﷺ
রাসূল ﷺ
রাসূল ﷺ
ibn Abdullah[n 1] (Arabic: مُحَمَّد ٱبن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه, romanized: Muḥammad
রাসূল ﷺ
ibn ʿAbd Allāh Classical Arabic pronunciation: [muˈħammad]; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)[1][2] was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of the world religion of Islam.[3] According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet, divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.[3][4][5][6] He is believed to be the final prophet of God in all the main branches of Islam, though the modern Ahmadiyya movement diverges from this belief.[n 2] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was born approximately 570 CE in Mecca.[1] He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father Abdullah was the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, and he died a few months before Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
birth. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
an orphan.[7] He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.[8] In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave[1][9] and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613,[10] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
The revelations (each known as Ayah – literally, "Sign [of God]") that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim "Word of God" on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
Quranic names and appellations
The name Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
(/mʊˈhæməd, -ˈhɑːməd/)[19] means "praiseworthy" and appears four times in the Quran.[20] The Quran also addresses Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Sources of biographical information
Quran
The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
.[21][22][23] The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context.[24][25]
Early biographies
Important sources regarding Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).[26] These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad,রাসূলﷺ
which provide additional information about Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
The earliest written sira (biographies of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work was lost, this sira survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser extent by Al-Tabari.[28][29] However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that "would distress certain people".[30] Another early history source is the history of Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
Hadith
Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad.রাসূলﷺ
Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
Pre-Islamic Arabia
In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: Allāt, Manāt and al-'Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.[40] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid monotheism"[41] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their historicity.[42][43] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
During the early years of Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
Life
Childhood and early life
Abu al-Qasim Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim[50] was born in Mecca[51] about the year 570[1] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-awwal.[52] He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca's prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
early lifetime.[16][53] Tradition places the year of Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.[58] According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's historicity.[59] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan.[59][60] For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim.[8] According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
In his teens, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade.[61] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
career as a prophet of God.[62]
Little is known of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend.[61] It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea."[63] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين), meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and "al-Sadiq" meaning "truthful"[64] and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.[9][16][65] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.[63]
Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who comes through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.[66][67]
Beginnings of the Quran
Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
began to pray alone in a cave named Hira on Mount Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca for several weeks every year.[68][69] Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to that cave, in the year 610 the angel Gabriel appeared to him and commanded Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
to recite verses that would be included in the Quran.[70] Consensus exists that the first Quranic words revealed were the beginning of Quran 96:1.[71] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
was deeply distressed upon receiving his first revelations. After returning home, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraka ibn Nawfal.[72] He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed.[39] Shi'a tradition states Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
was not surprised or frightened at Gabriel's appearance; rather he welcomed the angel, as if he was expected.[73] The initial revelation was followed by a three-year pause (a period known as fatra) during which Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
describing his revelations as "sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell". Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)".[77] According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine, since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.[16] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.[78] According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70,[79] Quran 6:19).[80] Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities (Quran 41:13–16).[81] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
did not only warn those who rejected God's revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listening to the divine words and serving God.[82] Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
Opposition
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.[83] She was followed by Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.[83] Around 613, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
According to Ibn Saad, opposition in Mecca started when Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the polytheism practiced by the Meccan forefathers.[86] However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
started public preaching.[87] As his followers increased, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Ka'aba, the focal point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
threatened to overthrow. Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.[85] Powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment towards Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
In 615, some of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[16] Ibn Sa'ad mentions two separate migrations. According to him, most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra, while a second group rejoined them in Medina. Ibn Hisham and Tabari, however, only talk about one migration to Ethiopia. These accounts agree that Meccan persecution played a major role in Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
However, there is a completely different story on the reason why the Muslims returned from Ethiopia to Mecca. According to this account—initially mentioned by Al-Waqidi then rehashed by Ibn Sa'ad and Tabari, but not by Ibn Hisham and not by Ibn Ishaq[91]—Muhammad,রাসূলﷺ
desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe, pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah. Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
retracted the verses the next day at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself. Instead, a ridicule of these gods was offered.[92][n 3][n 4] This episode, known as "The Story of the Cranes," is also known as "Satanic Verses". According to the story, this led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
and the Meccans, and the Abyssinia Muslims began to return home. When they arrived Gabriel had informed Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
In 616 (or 617), the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.[100][101] During this time, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
Isra and Mi'raj
Islamic tradition states that in 620, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
experienced the Isra and Mi'raj, a miraculous night-long journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel. At the journey's beginning, the Isra, he is said to have traveled from Mecca on a winged steed to "the farthest mosque." Later, during the Mi'raj, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoke with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[103] Ibn Ishaq, author of the first biography of Muhammad,রাসূলﷺ
Some western scholars[who?] hold that the Isra and Mi'raj journey traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); later traditions indicate Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem.[104][page needed]
Last years before Hijra
Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ
wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the "Year of Sorrow". With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
. Soon afterward, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection over Muhammad.রাসূলﷺ
This placed Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
in danger; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
then visited Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.[16][101] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
Many people visited Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina).[16] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there.[16] They also hoped, by the means of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage. Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is known as the "Second Pledge of al-'Aqaba", or, in Orientalists' view, the "Pledge of War".[106] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
Hijra
The Hijra is the migration of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Migration to Medina
A delegation, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community; due to his status as a neutral outsider.[110][111] There was fighting in Yathrib: primarily the dispute involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants, and was estimated to have lasted for around a hundred years before 620.[110] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal concept of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.[110] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.[16]
Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina, until nearly all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad.রাসূলﷺ
With the help of Ali, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
fooled the Meccans watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.[112] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
became known as muhajirun (emigrants).[16]
Establishment of a new polity
Among the first things Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
The first group of converts to Islam in Medina were the clans without great leaders; these clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside.[113] This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, with some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.[114] Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (supporters).[16] Then Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Beginning of armed conflict
Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to Medina.[116] War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans (see sura Al-Hajj, Quran 22:39–40).[117] According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Medina, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the Raid of Nakhla, resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners.[119] In March 624, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr.[120] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced.[121] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.[122] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed.[123][124][125] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith[16] and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
The victory strengthened Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers.[127] As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe and Abu 'Afak of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims.[128] They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes,[16] but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad' রাসূলﷺ
death.[131] According to al-Waqidi, after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina.[132] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Conflict with Mecca
The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr.[133] In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Medina while Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
A scout alerted Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccan camp) and fought the Battle of Uhud on 23 March 625.[136][137] Although the Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed, including Hamza, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
uncle who became one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca declaring victory. The announcement is probably because Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was wounded and thought dead. When they discovered that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
lived, the Meccans did not return due to false information about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.[138][139] The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Medina. He gained support from the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina; using propaganda about Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery.[141] Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
new policy was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against Medina were formed, he sent out expeditions to break them up.[141] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, and reacted in a severe manner.[142] One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.[143][144] Around a year later, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina[145] forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
in the name of God as it was not gained with bloodshed. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force, causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
Siege of Medina
With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks.[147] Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home.[148] The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27.[87] During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located to the south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished.[157] Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting.[16] While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Truce of Hudaybiyyah
Although Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj,[160] the Muslims had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of the Hajj.[161] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside Mecca.[162] According to Watt, although Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" or the "Pledge under the Tree". News of Uthman's safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.[162][164] The main points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) (Quran 48:1–29) assured them that the expedition must be considered a victorious one.[165] It was later that Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
followers realized the benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to identify Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
After signing the truce, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, or to regain prestige from what appeared as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.[135][166] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
also sent letters to many rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).[16][167][168] He sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.[167][168] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
directed his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah.[169]
Final years
Conquest of Mecca
The truce of Hudaybiyyah was enforced for two years.[170][171] The tribe of Banu Khuza'a had good relations with Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had allied with the Meccans.[170][171] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few of them.[170][171] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.[170] After this event, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition.[172] Soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by Muhammad.
রাসূলﷺ
Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
began to prepare for a campaign.[173] In 630, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
seized control of Mecca.[174] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace".[175] Some of these were later pardoned.[176] Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
proceeded to destroy all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.[177][178] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Conquest of Arabia
Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
. The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.[181] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.[16]
In the same year, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
organized an attack against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah and reports of hostility adopted against Muslims. With great difficulty he assembled 30,000 men; half of whom on the second day returned with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
hurled at them. Although Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
He also ordered the destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city to hold out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was Taif. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
to safeguard against his attacks and to benefit from the spoils of war.[16] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain independence: namely their code of virtue and ancestral traditions. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Farewell pilgrimage
In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Medina, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
completed his first true Islamic pilgrimage, setting precedent for the annual Great Pilgrimage, known as Hajj.[16] On the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
delivered his Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. For instance, he said a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black any superiority over a white except by piety and good action.[186] He abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
asked his male followers to "be good to women, for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God's trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words ..." He told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and forbade his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.[187][188] According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you" (Quran 5:3).[16] According to Shia tafsir, it refers to the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Medina.[189]
Death and tomb
A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was buried where he died in Aisha's house.[16][196][197] During the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
tomb.[198] The Green Dome above the tomb was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[199] Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation.[202] Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,[202] and the one of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
After Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
united several of the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.[18] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
friend and collaborator. With additional support Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Islamic social reforms
According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was not a private and individual matter but "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject."[211] Bernard Lewis says there are two important political traditions in Islam—Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status quo of Arab society.[212][213] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents".[which?][212] Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
message transformed society and moral orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.[214][page needed] Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.[215] The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
Appearance
In Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
al-Bukhari's book Sahih al-Bukhari, in Chapter 61, Hadith 57 & Hadith 60,[218][219] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
is depicted by two of his companions thus:
The description given in Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
The "seal of prophecy" between Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
shoulders is generally described as having been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon's egg.[221] Another description of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was provided by Umm Ma'bad, a woman he met on his journey to Medina:[223][224]
Household
Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
At the age of 25, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old.[227] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.[228] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.[229][230] After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.[158] Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
After migration to Medina, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, who was then in his fifties, married several more women.
Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
(Ruqayyah bint Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, রাসূলﷺ
Zainab bint Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
and Qasim ibn Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.[251] Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
only daughter.[252] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, but the child died when he was two years old.[251]
Nine of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
wives survived him.[226] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.[158]
Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
bought, freed, and then adopted as his son. He also had a wetnurse.[254] According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".[255]
Legacy
Islamic tradition
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Muhammad রাসূলﷺ |
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Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in Shahadah: "I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
In Islamic belief, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Muslim tradition credits Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
with several miracles or supernatural events.[259] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1–2 as referring to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.[260][261] Western historian of Islam Denis Gril believes the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
is identified with the Quran itself.[260]
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was attacked by the people of Ta'if and was badly injured. The tradition also describes an angel appearing to him and offering retribution against the assailants. It is said that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
rejected the offer and prayed for the guidance of the people of Ta'if.[262]
The Sunnah represents actions and sayings of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
(preserved in reports known as Hadith) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
. Stories of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, রাসূলﷺ
Qasidat al-Burda ("Poem of the Mantle") by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power.[265] The Quran refers to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as "a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds" (Quran 21:107).[16] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth (see, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif).[16] Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.[266] When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Sufism
The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.[268] Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Depictions
In line with the hadith's prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings, which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and Muhammad,রাসূলﷺ
Islamic religious art is focused on the word.[270][271] Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures.[270][272] Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%).[273] While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
in the past,[274] Islamic depictions of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
are rare.[270] They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.[272][275]
The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
.[275][276] During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events.[277] Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork" besides books.[278] In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early 16th century.[277] The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.[279] Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced.[277][280][281] Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad. রাসূলﷺ
[274] Illustrated accounts of the night journey (mi'raj) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.[282] During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated mi'raj books, with Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
Medieval Christians
The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
stems from Byzantine sources. They indicate that both Jews and Christians saw Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as a false prophet.[283] Another Greek source for Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
According to Hossein Nasr, the earliest European literature often refers to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
unfavorably. A few learned circles of Middle Ages Europe – primarily Latin-literate scholars – had access to fairly extensive biographical material about Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
. They interpreted the biography through a Christian religious filter, one that viewed Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as a person who seduced the Saracens into his submission under religious guise.[16] Popular European literature of the time portrayed Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as though he were worshipped by Muslims, similar to an idol or a heathen god.[16]
In later ages, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
came to be seen as a schismatic: Brunetto Latini's 13th century Li livres dou tresor represents him as a former monk and cardinal,[16] and Dante's Divine Comedy (Inferno, Canto 28), written in the early 1300s, puts Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
European appreciation
After the Reformation, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was often portrayed in a similar way.[16][285] Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
when he argued that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.[16][286] Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
because "he did not deviate from the natural religion".[16] Henri de Boulainvilliers, in his Vie de Mahomed which was published posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.[16] He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the Romans and Persians, and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain.[287] Voltaire had a somewhat mixed opinion on Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
: in his play Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète he vilifies Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as a symbol of fanaticism, and in a published essay in 1748 he calls him "a sublime and hearty charlatan", but in his historical survey Essai sur les mœurs, he presents him as legislator and a conqueror and calls him an "enthusiast."[287] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his Social Contract (1762), "brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammadv রাসূলﷺ
as a trickster and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers."[287] Emmanuel Pastoret published in 1787 his Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad, রাসূলﷺ
in which he presents the lives of these three "great men", "the greatest legislators of the universe", and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the common view that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers "the most sublime truths of cult and morals"; it defines the unity of God with an "admirable concision." Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the "legislator of Arabia" was "a great man."[287] Napoleon Bonaparte admired Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
and Islam,[288] and described him as a model lawmaker and a great man.[289][290] Thomas Carlyle in his book Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History (1840) describes Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as "[a] silent great soul; [...] one of those who cannot but be in earnest".[291] Carlyle's interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
status as a great man in history.[292]
Ian Almond says that German Romantic writers generally held positive views of Muhammad: রাসূলﷺ
"Goethe’s 'extraordinary' poet-prophet, Herder’s nation builder (...) Schlegel’s admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble 'a Koran of poetry')."[293] After quoting Heinrich Heine, who said in a letter to some friend that "I must admit that you, great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran... will not easily escape my memory", John Tolan goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Modern historians
Recent writers such as William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell dismiss the idea that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
"was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith"[295] and Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity.[296] Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation.[297] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development.[298][299] Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.[16]
Other religions
Followers of the Baháʼí Faith venerate Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets",[302] and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
Criticism
 |
Criticism of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
was decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for his unwarranted appropriation of Biblical narratives and figures,[305] vituperation of the Jewish faith,[305] and proclaiming himself as "the last prophet" without performing any miracle nor showing any personal requirement demanded in the Hebrew Bible to distinguish a true prophet chosen by the God of Israel from a false claimant; for these reasons, they gave him the derogatory nickname ha-Meshuggah (Hebrew: מְשֻׁגָּע, "the Madman" or "the Possessed").[306][307][308] During the Middle Ages various[309][310][311][312] Western and Byzantine Christian thinkers considered Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
to be a perverted,[309][311] deplorable man,[309][311] a false prophet,[309][310][311] and even the Antichrist,[309][310] as he was frequently seen in Christendom as a heretic[313][309][310][311] or possessed by demons.[313][311] Some of them, like Thomas Aquinas, criticized Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
promises of carnal pleasure in the afterlife.[311]
Modern religious[309][314] and secular[315][316] criticism of Islam[314][315][316] has concerned Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ
sincerity in claiming to be a prophet, his morality, his ownership of slaves,[317][318] his treatment of enemies, his marriages,[319] his treatment of doctrinal matters, and his psychological condition. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ
See also
- Ashtiname of Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
- Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
- Companions of the Prophet (aka Sahabah)
- Diplomatic career of Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
- Glossary of Islam
- List of founders of religious traditions
- List of notable Hijazis
- Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
and the Bible - Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
in film - Muhammad's
রাসূলﷺ
views on Christians - Possessions of Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
- Prophethood (Ahmadiyya)
- Relics of Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
Notes
- ^ He is referred to by many appellations, including Messenger of Allah, The Prophet Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
, Allah's Apostle, Last Prophet of Islam, and others; there are also many variant spellings of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
, such as Mohamet, Mohammed, Mahamad, Muhamad, and many others. - ^ The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
to be the "Seal of the Prophets" (Khātam an-Nabiyyīn) and the last law-bearing Prophet, but not the last Prophet. See:- Simon Ross Valentine (2008). Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice. Columbia University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-85065-916-7.
- "Finality of Prophethood | Hadhrat Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
(PUBH) the Last Prophet". Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011.
রাসূলﷺ
to be not the last Prophet:- The Nation of Islam considers Elijah Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
to be a prophet (source: African American Religious Leaders – p. 76, Jim Haskins, Kathleen Benson – 2008). - United Submitters International believe that Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
was the last prophet, but they also consider Rashad Khalifa to be a messenger. (Source: Daniel Pipes, Miniatures: Views of Islamic and Middle Eastern Politics, p. 98 (2004))
- ^ The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166 - ^ "Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35) - ^ "Although, there could be some historical basis for the story, in its present form, it is certainly a later, exegetical fabrication. Sura LIII, 1–20 and the end of the sura are not a unity, as is claimed by the story, XXII, 52 is later than LIII, 2107 and is almost certainly Medinan; and several details of the story—the mosque, the sadjda, and others not mentioned in the short summary above do not belong to Meccan setting. Caetani and J. Burton have argued against the historicity of the story on other grounds. Burton concluded that the story was invented by jurists so that XXII 52 could serve as a Kuranic proof-text for their abrogation theories."("Kuran" in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404)
References
- ^ a b c d e * Conrad, Lawrence I. (1987). "Abraha and Muhammad
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: some observations apropos of chronology and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition1". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 50 (2): 225–40. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00049016. S2CID 162350288.- Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby (1901). Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan
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calendars: with rules and tables and explanatory notes on the Julian and Gregorian calendars. G. Bell. p. 465. - Hamidullah, Muhammad
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(February 1969). "The Nasi', the Hijrah Calendar and the Need of Preparing a New Concordance for the Hijrah and Gregorian Eras: Why the Existing Western Concordances are Not to be Relied Upon" (PDF). The Islamic Review & Arab Affairs: 6–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2012.
- Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby (1901). Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan
- ^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632 CE, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (primarily non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the Muslim conquest of Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker,The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's
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Life and the Beginnings of Islam, page 248, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011. - ^ a b Alford T. Welch; Ahmad S. Moussalli; Gordon D. Newby (2009). "Muḥammad"
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. In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017.The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad
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was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's Messenger (rasūl Allāh), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind. - ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
- ^ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
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Mustafa Al-A'zami (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, pp. 26–27. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6. - ^ "Islam: An Overview – Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
- ^ Anis Ahmad (2009). "Dīn". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 5 December 2017.
A second important aspect of the meaning of the term emerges in Meccan revelations concerning the practice of the Prophet Abraham. Here it stands for the straight path (al-dīn al-ḥanīf) toward which Abraham and other messengers called the people [...] The Qurʿān asserts that this was the path or practice followed by Abraham [...] In the final analysis, dīn encompasses social and spiritual, as well the legal and political behaviour of the believers as a comprehensive way of life, a connotation wider than the word "religion."
- ^ F.E. Peters (2003), p. 9.
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p. 25; (2002) pp. 4–5
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muḥammad"
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. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 360–376. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2. - ^ "Muhammad"
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- Holt (1977a), p. 57
- Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32
- ^ "Muhammad"
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Archived 15 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. - ^ Jean-Louis Déclais, Names of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
- ^ Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, p. 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
- ^ Quran 17:106 Quran 17:106
- ^ Clinton Bennett (1998). In search of Muhammad
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. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. - ^ Francis E. Peters (1994). Muhammad
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and the origins of Islam. SUNY Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-7914-1876-5. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. - ^ a b Watt (1953), p. xi
- ^ Reeves (2003), pp. 6–7
- ^ a b S.A. Nigosian (2004), p. 6
- ^ Donner (1998), p. 132
- ^ Holland, Tom (2012). In the Shadow of the Sword. Doubleday. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-7481-1951-6.
Things which it is disgraceful to discuss; matters which would distress certain people; and such reports as I have been told are not to be accepted as trustworthy - all these things have I omitted. [Ibn Hashim, p. 691.]
- ^ Watt (1953), p. xv
- ^ a b Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34
- ^ Jonathan, A.C. Brown (2007). The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon. Brill Publishers. p. 9. ISBN 978-90-04-15839-9. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017.
We can discern three strata of the Sunni ḥadīth canon. The perennial core has been the Ṣaḥīḥayn. Beyond these two foundational classics, some fourth-/tenth-century scholars refer to a four-book selection that adds the two Sunans of Abū Dāwūd (d. 275/889) and al-Nāsaʾī (d. 303/915). The Five Book canon, which is first noted in the sixth/twelfth century, incorporates the Jāmiʿ of al-Tirmidhī (d. 279/892). Finally, the Six Book canon, which hails from the same period, adds either the Sunan of Ibn Mājah (d. 273/887), the Sunan of al-Dāraquṭnī (d. 385/995) or the Muwaṭṭaʾ of Mālik b. Anas (d. 179/796). Later ḥadīth compendia often included other collections as well. None of these books, however, has enjoyed the esteem of al-Bukhārīʼs and Muslimʼs works.
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp. xi, 19–20
- ^ Nurullah Ardic (21 August 2012), Islam and the Politics of Secularism, Routledge, p. 99, ISBN 978-1-136-48984-6, archived from the original on 22 January 2018
- ^ Watt (1953), pp. 1–2
- ^ Watt (1953), pp. 16–18
- ^ Loyal Rue, Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological,2005, p. 224
- ^ a b John Esposito, Islam, Expanded edition, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–5
- ^ See:
- Esposito, Islam, Extended Edition, Oxford University Press, pp. 5–7
- Quran 3:95
- ^ Ueberweg, Friedrich. History of Philosophy, Vol. 1: From Thales to the Present Time. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 409. ISBN 978-1-4400-4322-2.
- ^ Kochler (1982), p. 29
- ^ cf. Uri Rubin, Hanif, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ See:
- Louis Jacobs (1995), p. 272
- Turner (2005), p. 16
- ^ Dever, William G. (10 May 2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2126-3.
- ^ Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. pp. 297–299. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016.
- ^ a b c d Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016.
- ^ Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. pp. 286–287. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
- ^ a b c Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. Archived from the original on 17 May 2016.
- ^ Muhammad
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Archived 9 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 15 February 2017 - ^ Rodinson, Maxime (2002). Muhammad:
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Prophet of Islam. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-86064-827-4. Retrieved 12 May 2019. - ^ Esposito, John L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
- ^ See also Quran 43:31 cited in EoI; Muhammad
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- ^ Marr J.S., Hubbard E., Cathey J.T. (2014): The Year of the Elephant. figshare. doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.1186833 Retrieved 21 October 2014 (GMT)
- ^ The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity; edited by Scott Fitzgerald Johnson; p. 287
- ^ Muhammad
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and the Origins of Islam; by Francis E. Peters; p. 88 - ^ Ali, Wijdan (August 1999). "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's
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Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art" (PDF). Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art (7): 3. ISSN 0928-6802. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2004. - ^ Meri, Josef W. (2004). Medieval Islamic civilization. Vol. 1. Routledge. p. 525. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
- ^ a b Watt, "Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine", Encyclopaedia of Islam.
- ^ Watt, Amina, Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^ a b c Watt (1974), p. 8.
- ^ Armand Abel, Bahira, Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^ a b Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History (2005), v. 3, p. 1025
- ^ Khan, Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad
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the final messenger (1998 ed.). India: Islamic Book Service. p. 332. ISBN 978-81-85738-25-3. - ^ Esposito (1998), p. 6
- ^ Dairesi, Hırka-i Saadet; Aydin, Hilmi (2004). Uğurluel, Talha; Doğru, Ahmet (eds.). The Sacred Trusts: Pavilion of the Sacred Relics, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul. Tughra Books. ISBN 978-1-932099-72-0.
- ^ Muhammad
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Mustafa Al-A'zami (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, p. 24. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6. - ^ Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 6
- ^ John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland (1904), p. 83
- ^ Brown (2003), pp. 72–73
- ^ a b 96:1 Wensinck, A.J.; Rippen, A. (2002). "Waḥy". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 11 (2nd ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. p. 54. ISBN 978-90-04-12756-2.
- ^ Esposito (2010), p. 8
- ^ See:
- Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 7
- Rodinson (2002), p. 71
- ^ Quran 93:3
- ^ Brown (2003), pp. 73–74
- ^ Uri Rubin, Muhammad,
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Encyclopedia of the Quran - ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". Cmje.org. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
- ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 31.
- ^ 38:70
- ^ 6:19
- ^ a b Uri Rubin, Muhammad,
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Encyclopedia of the Qur'an - ^ Daniel C. Peterson, Good News, Encyclopedia of the Quran
- ^ a b Watt (1953), p. 86
- ^ Ramadan (2007), pp. 37–39
- ^ a b c Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 36
- ^ F.E. Peters (1994), p. 169
- ^ a b c Uri Rubin, Quraysh, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
- ^ Jonathan E. Brockopp, Slaves and Slavery, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ W. Arafat, Bilal b. Rabah, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Horovitz, Josef (1927). "The Earliest Biographies of the Prophet and Their Authors". Islamic Culture. 1 (2): 279–284. doi:10.1163/157005807780220576.
- ^ "Muḥammad
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", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs et al. Brill Online, 2014 - ^ The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad
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(2010), p. 35 - ^ "Kuran" in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404
- ^ "Muḥammad
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", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs et al. Brill Online, 2014 - ^ W.N. Arafat (1976), New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, pp. 101–107
- ^ Rizwi Faizer (31 October 2005), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, p. 754, ISBN 978-1-135-45596-5, archived from the original on 27 February 2017
- ^ Muhammad
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in History, Thought, and Culture, ABC-CLIO, 25 April 2014, p. 279, ISBN 978-1-61069-178-9, archived from the original on 19 March 2017 - ^ Sayyid Saeed Akhtar Rizvi (1975), The Quran and Hadith, p. 109, ISBN 978-9976-956-87-0, archived from the original on 22 January 2018
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- ^ F.E. Peters (2003b), p. 96
- ^ a b c Moojan Momen (1985), p. 4
- ^ Oleg Grabar (1 October 2006). The Dome of the Rock. Harvard University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-674-02313-0. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
- ^ a b Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p. 482
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- ^ Watt (1974), p. 83
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Mustafa Al-A'zami (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, pp. 30–31. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6. - ^ Muhammad
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Mustafa Al-A'zami (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, p. 29. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6. - ^ a b c d Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 39
- ^ a b Esposito (1998), p. 17
- ^ Moojan Momen (1985), p. 5
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 175.
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 177
- ^ "Ali ibn Abitalib". Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 12 August 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2007.
- ^ Fazlur Rahman (1979), p. 21
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- ^ William Montgomery Watt (7 February 1974). Muhammad:
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Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–14. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. Retrieved 29 December 2011. - ^ a b Ibn Ishaq (translated by Guillaume, A. 1955) The Life of Muhammad
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. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 281–287 - ^ Rodinson (2002), p. 164
- ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 45
- ^ Glubb (2002), pp. 179–86
- ^ Lewis (2002), p. 41.
- ^ Watt (1961), p. 123
- ^ Rodinson (2002), pp. 168–69
- ^ Lewis(2002), p. 44
- ^ Russ Rodgers, The Generalship of Muhammad
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: Battles and Campaigns of the Prophet of Allah (University Press of Florida; 2012) ch 1 - ^ a b Watt (1956), p. 178
- ^ Maulana Muhammad
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Ali, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
The Prophet, pp. 199–200 - ^ Watt (1956), p. 179
- ^ Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad.
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John Wiley and Sons. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-7456-5488-1. - ^ Faizer, Rizwi (2010). The Life of Muhammad:
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Al-Waqidi's Kitab al-Maghazi. Routledge. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-136-92113-1. - ^ Watt (1961), p. 132.
- ^ Watt (1961), p. 134
- ^ a b Lewis (1960), p. 45
- ^ C.F. Robinson, Uhud, Encyclopedia of Islam
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- ^ Watt (1974), p. 137
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- Watt (1981), p. 432
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- ^ a b Watt (1956), p. 30.
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 34
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 18
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- ^ Watt (1956), pp. 220–21
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 35
- ^ Watt (1956), pp. 36, 37
- ^ See:
- Rodinson (2002), pp. 209–11
- Watt (1964), p. 169
- ^ Watt (1964) pp. 170–72
- ^ Peterson (2007), p. 126
- ^ Ramadan (2007), p. 141
- ^ Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, p. 754.
- ^ Arafat. "New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 1976: 100–07.
- ^ Ahmad, pp. 85–94.
- ^ Nemoy, "Barakat Ahmad's "Muhammad
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and the Jews", p. 325. Nemoy is sourcing Ahmad's Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
and the Jews. - ^ Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza"
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 39
- ^ a b c d e Watt, Aisha, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Learning Islam 8. Islamic Services Foundation. 2009. p. D14. ISBN 978-1-933301-12-9.
- ^ Quran 2:196–210
- ^ Lings (1987), p. 249
- ^ a b c d Watt, al- Hudaybiya or al-Hudaybiyya Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ F.E. Peters (25 July 2005). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Volume I: The Peoples of God. Princeton University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-691-12372-1. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
- ^ Lewis (2002), p. 42
- ^ Lings (1987), p. 255
- ^ Vaglieri, Khaybar, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ a b Lings (1987), p. 260
- ^ a b Khan (1998), pp. 250–251
- ^ F. Buhl, Muta, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ a b c d Khan (1998), p. 274
- ^ a b c Lings (1987), p. 291
- ^ a b Khan (1998), pp. 274–75
- ^ Lings (1987), p. 292
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 66.
- ^ The Message by Ayatullah Ja'far Subhani, chapter 48 Archived 2 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine referencing Sirah by Ibn Hisham, vol. II, page 409.
- ^ Rodinson (2002), p. 261.
- ^ Harold Wayne Ballard, Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002), p. 163
- ^ F.E. Peters (2003), p. 240
- ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad
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. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1. Retrieved 8 December 2011.Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.
- ^ Quran 110:1
- ^ Watt (1974), p. 207
- ^ M.A. al-Bakhit, Tabuk, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Haykal, M.H. (1933) The Life of Muhammad,
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translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi. The Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs, Cairo, Egypt and University of Chicago. - ^ Husayn, M.J. Biography of Imam 'Ali Ibn Abi-Talib, Translation of Sirat Amir Al-Mu'minin, Translated by: Sayyid Tahir Bilgrami, Ansariyan Publications, Qum, Islamic Republic of Iran
- ^ Lewis (1993), pp. 43–44
- ^ Sultan, Sohaib (March 2011). The Koran For Dummies. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-7645-5581-7.
- ^ Devin J. Stewart, Farewell Pilgrimage, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ Al-Hibri (2003), p. 17
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- Tabatabae, Tafsir Al-Mizan, vol. 9, pp. 227–47 Archived 11 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ The Last Prophet Archived 23 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, p. 3. Lewis Lord of U.S. News & World Report. 7 April 2008.
- ^ Reşit Haylamaz (2013). The Luminous Life of Our Prophet. Tughra Books. p. 355. ISBN 978-1-59784-681-3. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018.
- ^ Gülen, Fethullah (2000). Muhammad
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The Messenger of God. The Light, Inc. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-932099-83-6. - ^ Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Volume 5). DARUSSALAM. 2003. p. 214. ISBN 978-9960-892-76-4.
- ^ Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muhammad
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". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 374.Then Mumammad suddenly fell ill, presumably of the ordinary Medina fever (al-Farazdak, ix, 13); but this was dangerous to a man physically and mentally overwrought.
- ^ Reşit Haylamaz; Fatih Harpci (7 August 2014). Prophet Muhammad
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– Sultan of Hearts – Vol 2. Tughra Books. p. 472. ISBN 978-1-59784-683-7. - ^ Leila Ahmed (1986), 665–91 (686)
- ^ a b F.E. Peters (2003), p. 90 Archived 22 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Ariffin, Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed (2005). Architectural Conservation in Islam: Case Study of the Prophet's Mosque. Penerbit UTM. p. 88. ISBN 978-983-52-0373-2.
- ^ "Prophet's Mosque". Archnet.org. 2 May 2005. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
- ^ "Isa", Encyclopedia of Islam
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- ^ a b Weston, Mark (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad
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- ^ Weston, Mark (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad
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. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 182–83. ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. - ^ Clark, Malcolm (2011). Islam For Dummies. John Wiley and Sons. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-118-05396-6. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
- ^ See:
- Holt (1977a), p. 57
- Hourani (2003), p. 22
- Lapidus (2002), p. 32
- Esposito (1998), p. 36
- Madelung (1996), p. 43
- ^ Esposito (1998), pp. 35–36
- ^ Cambridge History of Islam (1970), p. 30.
- ^ a b c Lewis (1998) Archived 8 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ * Watt (1974), p. 234
- Robinson (2004), p. 21
- Esposito (1998), p. 98
- R. Walzer, Ak̲h̲lāḳ, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
- ^ Islamic ethics, Encyclopedia of Ethics
- ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 34
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 30
- ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 52
- ^ "Virtues and Merits of the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions". Sunnah.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
- ^ "Virtues and Merits of the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions". Sunnah.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
- ^ Ali Sultaan Asani; Kamal Abdel-Malek; Annemarie Schimmel (October 1995). Celebrating Muḥammad
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: images of the prophet in popular Muslim poetry. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-050-5. Retrieved 5 November 2011. - ^ a b Annemarie Schimmel (1985). And Muhammad
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is his messenger: the veneration of the Prophet in Islamic piety. University of North Carolina Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8078-1639-4. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2011. - ^ Al-Tirmidhi, Shama'il Muhammadiyah
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Archived 26 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Book 1, Hadith 5 & Book 1, Hadith 7/8 - ^ a b Omid Safi (17 November 2009). Memories of Muhammad
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: why the Prophet matters. HarperCollins. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-06-123134-6. Retrieved 5 November 2011. - ^ Carl W. Ernst. Following Muhammad
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: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. p. 78. - ^ See for example Marco Schöller, Banu Qurayza, Encyclopedia of the Quran mentioning the differing accounts of the status of Rayhana
- ^ a b Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Wives of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran
- ^ Subhani, Jafar. "Chapter 9". The Message. Ansariyan Publications, Qom. Archived from the original on 7 October 2010.
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 18
- ^ Bullough (1998), p. 119
- ^ Reeves (2003), p. 46
- ^ Momen (1985), p. 9
- ^ a b c D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40
- ^ Karen Armstrong, Muhammad
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: A Biography of the Prophet, Harper San Francisco, 1992, p. 145 - ^ Karen Armstrong, Muhammad
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: Prophet For Our Time, HarperPress, 2006, p. 105 - ^ Muhammad
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Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
, North American Trust Publications (1976), p. 139 - ^ Barlas (2002), pp. 125–26
- ^ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad:
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The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. pp. 143–44. ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9. - ^ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad:
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The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. p. 316. ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9.Evidence that the Prophet waited for Aisha to reach physical maturity before consummation comes from al-Ṭabarī, who says she was too young for intercourse at the time of the marriage contract;
- ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:234, Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:236, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:64, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:65, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:88, Sahih Muslim, 8:3309, 8:3310, 8:3311, 41:4915, Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4917
- ^ Tabari, Volume 9, Page 131; Tabari, Volume 7, Page 7
- ^ [158][232][234][235][236][237][238][239][240]
- ^ Barlas, Asma (2012). "Believing Women" in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an. University of Texas Press. p. 126.
On the other hand, however, Muslims who calculate 'Ayesha's age based on details of her sister Asma's age, about whom more is known, as well as on details of the Hijra (the Prophet's migration from Mecca to Madina), maintain that she was over thirteen and perhaps between seventeen and nineteen when she got married. Such views cohere with those Ahadith that claim that at her marriage Ayesha had "good knowledge of Ancient Arabic poetry and genealogy" and "pronounced the fundamental rules of Arabic Islamic ethics.
- ^ "The Concept of Polygamy and the Prophet's Marriages (Chapter: The Other Wives)". Archived from the original on 7 February 2011.
- ^ Ali, Muhammad
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(1997). Muhammadরাসূলﷺ
the Prophet. Ahamadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-913321-07-2. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. - ^ Ayatollah Qazvini. "Ayesha married the Prophet when she was young? (In Persian and Arabic)". Archived from the original on 26 September 2010.
- ^ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad:
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The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. pp. 146–47. ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9. - ^ [242][243][244][245][246]
- ^ Tariq Ramadan (2007), pp. 168–69
- ^ Asma Barlas (2002), p. 125
- ^ Armstrong (1992), p. 157
- ^ a b Nicholas Awde (2000), p. 10
- ^ Ordoni (1990), pp. 32, 42–44.
- ^ "Ali". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya recorded the list of some names of Muhammad's
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female-slaves in Zad al-Ma'ad, Part I, p. 116 - ^ "Slavery in Islam". BBC. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2016.
- ^ Farah (1994), p. 135
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 12.
- ^ Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
- ^ A.J. Wensinck, Muʿd̲j̲iza, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ a b Denis Gril, Miracles, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ Daniel Martin Varisco, Moon, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ "A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims" chapter "Muhammad's
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Visit to Ta’if Archived 26 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine" on al-islam.org - ^ "Arabic Presentation Forms-A" (PDF). The Unicode Standard, Version 5.2. Mountain View, Ca.: Unicode, Inc. 1 October 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ Muhammad
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, Encyclopædia Britannica, p. 9 - ^ Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych (24 May 2010). The mantle odes: Arabic praise poems to the Prophet Muḥammad
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. Indiana University Press. p. xii. ISBN 978-0-253-22206-0. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2012. - ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Encyclopædia Britannica, Muhammad
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, p. 13 - ^ Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p. 212
- ^ J. Schacht, Fiḳh, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Muhammad
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, Encyclopædia Britannica, pp. 11–12 - ^ a b c Kees Wagtendonk (1987). "Images in Islam". In Dirk van der Plas (ed.). Effigies dei: essays on the history of religions. Brill. pp. 119–24. ISBN 978-90-04-08655-5. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ John L. Esposito (2011). What everyone needs to know about Islam (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-19-979413-3. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015.
- ^ a b F.E. Peters (10 November 2010). Jesus and Muhammad
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: Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives. Oxford University Press. pp. 159–61. ISBN 978-0-19-974746-7. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2011. - ^ Safi2010 (2 November 2010). 2 November 2010. HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-123135-3. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
- ^ a b c Safi, Omid (5 May 2011). "Why Islam does (not) ban images of the Prophet". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 February 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
- ^ a b c Freek L. Bakker (15 September 2009). The challenge of the silver screen: an analysis of the cinematic portraits of Jesus, Rama, Buddha and Muhammad
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. Brill. pp. 207–09. ISBN 978-90-04-16861-9. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2011. - ^ Christiane Gruber (2009). "Between Logos (Kalima) and Light (Nur): Representations of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad
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in Islamic Painting". In Gulru Necipoglu (ed.). Muqarnas. Vol. 26. Brill. pp. 234–35. ISBN 978-90-04-17589-1. Archived from the original on 11 July 2012. - ^ a b c Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-8122-4237-9.
- ^ Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 164–69. ISBN 978-0-8122-4237-9.
- ^ Christiane Gruber (2011). "When Nubuvvat encounters Valayat: Safavid painting of the "Prophet" Mohammad's Mi'raj, c. 1500–50". In Pedram Khosronejad (ed.). The Art and Material Culture of Iranian Shi'ism: Iconography and Religious Devotion in Shi'i Islam. I. B. Tauris. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-1-84885-168-9. Archived from the original on 2 January 2017.
- ^ Elizabeth Edwards; Kaushik Bhaumik (2008). Visual sense: a cultural reader. Berg. p. 344. ISBN 978-1-84520-741-0. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015.
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- ^ a b Ali Boozari (2010). "Persian illustrated lithographed books on the miʻrāj: improving children's Shi'i beliefs in the Qajar period". In Christiane J. Gruber; Frederick Stephen Colby (eds.). The Prophet's ascension: cross-cultural encounters with the Islamic mi'rāj tales. Indiana University Press. pp. 252–54. ISBN 978-0-253-35361-0. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015.
- ^ Kaegi, Walter Emil, Jr. (1969). "Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest". Church History. 38 (2): 139–42. doi:10.2307/3162702. JSTOR 3162702. S2CID 162340890, quoting from Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati 86–87
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Indeed, [Postel's] greater tolerance for other religions was much in evidence in Παvθεvωδια: compostio omnium dissidiorum, where, astonishingly for the sixteenth century, he argued that Muhammad
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ought to be esteemed even in Christendom as a genuine prophet. - ^ a b c d Brockopp, Jonathan E (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Muḥammad
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. New York: Cambridge UP. pp. 240–42. ISBN 978-0-521-71372-6. - ^ Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena (1903), pp. 279–80
- ^ Brockopp, Jonathan E., ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad
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. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-71372-6. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. - ^ Younos, Farid (2010). Islamic Culture. Cambridge Companions to Religion. AuthorHouse. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4918-2344-6.
- ^ Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On heroes, hero worship and the heroic in history. London: James Fraser. p. 87.
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. Harvard UP. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-674-74448-6. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. - ^ Ian Almond, History of Islam in German Thought: From Leibniz to Nietzsche, Routledge (2009), p. 93
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: A Model of Monotheistic Reform for Nineteenth-Century Ashkenaz." Common Knowledge, vol. 24 no. 2, 2018, pp. 256-279 - ^ Watt, Bell (1995) p. 18
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- ^ a b
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, who had taken nothing therefrom at first hand, accused them of intentionally concealing its true meaning or of entirely misunderstanding it, and taunted them with being "asses who carry books" (sura lxii. 5). The increasing bitterness of this vituperation, which was similarly directed against the less numerous Christians of Medina, indicated that in time Muhammad
would not hesitate to proceed to actual hostilities. The outbreak of the latter was deferred by the fact that the hatred of the prophet was turned more forcibly in another direction, namely, against the people of Mecca, whose earlier refusal of Islam and whose attitude toward the community appeared to him at Medina as a personal insult which constituted a sufficient cause for war.
- ^ Norman A. Stillman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Jewish Publication Society. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7.
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- ^ a b c d e f g Quinn, Frederick (2008). "The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600)". The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 17–54. ISBN 978-0-19-532563-8.
- ^ a b c d Goddard, Hugh (2000). "The First Age of Christian-Muslim Interaction (c. 830/215)". A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 34–41. ISBN 978-1-56663-340-6.
- ^ a b c d e f g Curtis, Michael (2009). Orientalism and Islam: European Thinkers on Oriental Despotism in the Middle East and India. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-521-76725-5.
- ^ John of Damascus, De Haeresibus. See Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 94, 1864, cols 763–73. An English translation by the Reverend John W. Voorhis appeared in The Moslem World, October 1954, pp. 392–98.
- ^ a b Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muḥammad"
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. Encyclopaedia of Islam. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 360–376. ISBN 90-04-09419-9. - ^ a b Cimino, Richard (December 2005). ""No God in Common": American Evangelical Discourse on Islam after 9/11". Review of Religious Research. 47 (2): 162–74. doi:10.2307/3512048. JSTOR 3512048.
- ^ a b Ibn Warraq (2000). The Quest for the Historical Muhammad.
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Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-787-1. - ^ a b Robert Spencer (2006). The Truth About Muhammad.
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Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59698-028-0. - ^ Gordon, Murray (1989). "The Attitude of Islam Toward Slavery". Slavery in the Arab World. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 18–47. ISBN 978-0-941533-30-0.
- ^ Willis, John Ralph, ed. (2013). Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. pp. vii–xi, 3–26. ISBN 978-0-7146-3142-4.; Willis, John Ralph, ed. (1985). Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: The Servile Estate. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge. pp. vii–xi. ISBN 978-0-7146-3201-8.
- ^ a b
রাসূলﷺ
had no other wife; but scarcely two months had elapsed after her death (619) when he married Sauda, the widow of Sakran, who, with her husband, had become an early convert to Islam and who was one of the emigrants to Abyssinia. At about the same time Muhammad
contracted an engagement with 'A'ishah, the six-year-old daughter of Abu Bakr, and married her shortly after his arrival at Medina. 'A'ishah was the only one of his wives who had not been previously married; and she remained his favorite to the end. [...] In his married life, as well as in his religious life, a change seems to have come over Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
after his removal to Medina. In the space of ten years he took twelve or thirteen wives and had several concubines: even the faithful were scandalized, and the prophet had to resort to alleged special revelations from God to justify his conduct. Such was the case when he wished to marry Zainab, the wife of his adopted son Zaid.
- ^
- ^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1 July 1952). "The Condemnation of the Jews of Banu Qurayzah". The Muslim World. 42 (3): 160–71. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1952.tb02149.x. ISSN 1478-1913.
- ^ Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur (2005), The Sealed Nectar, Darussalam Publications, pp. 201–05, ISBN 9798694145923,
They [the Jews killed] numbered 600 or 700—the largest estimate says they were between 800 and 900.
- ^ Spellberg, Denise A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr. Columbia University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-231-07999-0.
রাসূলﷺ
রাসূলﷺ
রাসূলﷺ
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and the Origins of Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1876-5. - Peters, F.E. (1991). "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad
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". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 23 (3): 291–315. doi:10.1017/S0020743800056312. - Peterson, Daniel (2007). Muhammad
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, Prophet of God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-0754-0. - Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0.
- Ramadan, Tariq (2007). In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8. - Reeves, Minou (2003). Muhammad
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in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6. - Robinson, David (2004). Muslim Societies in African History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82627-3.
- Rodinson, Maxime (2002). Muhammad
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: Prophet of Islam. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1-86064-827-4. - Rue, Loyal (2005). Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological. Rutgers. ISBN 978-0-8135-3955-3.
- Serin, Muhittin (1998). Hattat Aziz Efendi. Istanbul. ISBN 978-975-7663-03-4. OCLC 51718704.
- Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic perspectives on inter-faith relations. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-415-31486-2.
- Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. AL-MIZAN:AN EXEGESIS OF THE QUR'AN, translation by S. Saeed Rizvi. WOFIS. ISBN 978-964-6521-14-8.
- Teed, Peter (1992). A Dictionary of Twentieth Century History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-211676-5.
- Turner, Colin (2005). Islam: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34106-6.
- Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Muhammad
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: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. (New edition 1974) - Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad
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at Medina. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577307-1. - Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). Muhammad
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at Mecca. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577277-7. ASIN: B000IUA52A.
Encyclopedias
- William H. McNeill; Jerry H. Bentley; David Christian, eds. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1 https://archive.org/details/berkshireencyclo0004unse_k2y1.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - Richard C. Martin; Said Amir Arjomand; Marcia Hermansen; Abdulkader Tayob; Rochelle Davis; John Obert Voll, eds. (2003). "Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World: M-Z, Index. Volume 2". Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
- P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). "Encyclopaedia of Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
- Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865733-2 https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2005). "Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān". Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12356-4.
- Encyclopedia of World History. Oxford University Press. 1998. ISBN 978-0-19-860223-1 https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780198602231.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - The New Encyclopædia Britannica (Rev ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated. 2005. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - Margoliouth, David Samuel (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). pp. 399–410.
- Fayda, Mustafa; Kandemır, M.Yaşar; Durmuş, İsmaıl; Özel, Ahmet; Topaloğlu, Bekır; Donmez, İ.Kâfı; Çağrici, Mustafa; Çelebi, İlyas; Uludağ, Süleyman; Kanar, Mehmet; İsmet Uzun, Mustafa; Toker, Halıl; Serın, Muhıttın; Özcun, Nurı; Avcı, Casım; Birişik, A.Hamıt; Görgün, Hılal (2005). MUHAMMED – An article published in 30th Volume of TDV Encyclopedia of Islam (in Turkish). Vol. 30. Istanbul: İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 408–481. ISBN 978-97-53-89425-8.
Further reading
Books
- Berg, Herbert, ed. (2003). Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins. E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12602-2.
- Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287605-8. - Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
: A translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-636033-1. - Hamidullah, Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
(1998). The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam. Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute. ISBN 978-969-8413-00-2. - Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). The Biography of Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
: The Issue of the Sources – Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11513-2. - Musa, A.Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008
- Rubin, Uri (1995). The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
v as Viewed by the Early Muslims (A Textual Analysis). Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-110-6. - Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). And Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4128-0.
Articles
- Ali, Tariq, "Winged Words" (review of Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad
রাসূলﷺ
, translated by Anne Carter, NYRB, March 2021, 373 pp., ISBN 978 1 68137 492 5), London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. 12 (17 June 2021), pp. 11–14.
Online
- Muḥammad
রাসূলﷺ
, in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, by Ahmad S. Moussalli, Gordon D. Newby, Ahmad Moussalli - Muhammad v
রাসূলﷺ
: Prophet of Islam, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by Nicolai Sinai and W. Montgomery Watt
External links
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