-->

সোমবার, ১৮ এপ্রিল, ২০২২

Muhammad রাসূল ﷺ


Muhammad রাসূল ﷺ


Jump to navigationJump to search

রাসূল ﷺ 

রাসূল ﷺ

রাসূল ﷺ

রাসূল ﷺ

রাসূল ﷺ

The Holy Prophet

Muhammad
 

রাসূল ﷺ

Inscription proclaiming Muhammad as the messenger of God

রাসূল ﷺ 

Personal
Bornc. 53 BH (570 CE)[1]
MeccaHejazArabia
Died8 June 632 (aged 61–62)
Medina, Hejaz, Arabia
Resting place
Green Dome at al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina, Arabia

24°28′03″N 39°36′41″E
SpouseSee Muhammad's 

রাসূলﷺ


 wives
ChildrenSee Muhammad's

রাসূলﷺ

 children
ParentsAbdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (father)
Amina bint Wahb (mother)
Known forFounding Islam
Other names
RelativesFamily tree of Muhammad 

রাসূলﷺ

Ahl al-Bayt  ("Family of the House")
SignatureMuhammad Seal.svg
Seal of Muhammad
 

রাসূলﷺ

Arabic name
Personal (Ism)Muhammad 

রাসূল ﷺ

Patronymic (Nasab)Muḥammad 

রাসূল ﷺ 

 ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusai ibn Kilab
Teknonymic (Kunya)Abu al-Qasim
Epithet (Laqab)Khātam an-Nâbîyīn (Seal of the prophets)

Muhammad 

রাসূল ﷺ

 ibn Abdullah[n 1] (Arabicمُحَمَّد ٱبن عَبْد ٱللَّٰهromanizedMuḥammad 

রাসূল ﷺ

 ibn ʿAbd Allāh Classical Arabic pronunciation: [muˈħammad]c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)[1][2] was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of the world religion of Islam.[3] According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet, divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of AdamAbrahamMosesJesus, and other prophets.[3][4][5][6] He is believed to be the final prophet of God in all the main branches of Islam, though the modern Ahmadiyya movement diverges from this belief.[n 2] Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief.

Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

was born approximately 570 CE in Mecca.[1] He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father Abdullah was the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, and he died a few months before Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 birth. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 an orphan.[7] He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.[8] In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, Muhammad   রাসূলﷺ

reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave[1][9] and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613,[10] Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

started preaching these revelations publicly,[11] proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "submission" (islām) to God[12] is the right way of life (dīn),[13] and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam.[14][15][16]

Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad   রাসূলﷺ

united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.[17][18]

The revelations (each known as Ayah – literally, "Sign [of God]") that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim "Word of God" on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 teachings and practices (sunnah), found in the Hadith and sira (biography) literature, are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic law (see Sharia).

Quranic names and appellations

The name Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 (/mʊˈhæməd, -ˈhɑːməd/)[19] means "praiseworthy" and appears four times in the Quran.[20] The Quran also addresses Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 in the second person by various appellations; prophetmessenger, servant of God ('abd), announcer (bashir),[Quran 2:119] witness (shahid),[Quran 33:45] bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), warner (nathir),[Quran 11:2] reminder (mudhakkir),[Quran 88:21] one who calls [unto God] (dā'ī),[Quran 12:108] light personified (noor),[Quran 05:15] and the light-giving lamp (siraj munir).[Quran 33:46]

Sources of biographical information

Quran

The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

.[21][22][23] The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context.[24][25]

Early biographies

Important sources regarding Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).[26] These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad,রাসূলﷺ

 which provide additional information about Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 life.[27]

The earliest written sira (biographies of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work was lost, this sira survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser extent by Al-Tabari.[28][29] However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that "would distress certain people".[30] Another early history source is the history of Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 AH), and the work of Waqidi's secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (death 230 AH).[26]

Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is unascertainable.[28] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been only subject to "tendential shaping".[31]

Hadith

Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad.রাসূলﷺ

 Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 al-BukhariMuslim ibn al-HajjajMuhammadরাসূলﷺ

 ibn Isa at-TirmidhiAbd ar-Rahman al-NasaiAbu DawoodIbn MajahMalik ibn Anasal-Daraqutni.[32][33]

Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources.[32] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.[34] Muslim scholars on the other hand typically place a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical literature, since hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission (isnad); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes.[35]

Pre-Islamic Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.[36] Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal affiliation, whether based on kinship or alliances, was an important source of social cohesion.[37] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime.[38][39]

In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: AllātManāt and al-'Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.[40] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid monotheism"[41] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their historicity.[42][43] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham.[44] After a century of exhaustive archaeological investigation, no evidence has been found of a historical Abraham or Ishmael.[45]

The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and communication routes were no longer secure.[46] Religious divisions were an important cause of the crisis.[47] Judaism became the dominant religion in Yemen while Christianity took root in the Persian Gulf area.[47] In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more spiritual form of religion.[47] While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.[47]

During the early years of Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 life, the Quraysh tribe to which he belonged became a dominant force in western Arabia.[48] They formed the cult association of hums, which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the Kaaba and reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary.[49] To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger.[49] Thus, although the association of hums was primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city.[49]

Life

Childhood and early life

hideTimeline of Muhammad's

রাসূলﷺ

 life
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad

রাসূলﷺ

DateAgeEvent
c. 570Death of his father, Abdullah
c. 5700Possible date of birth: 12 or 17 Rabi al Awal: in MeccaArabia
c. 5776Death of his mother, Amina
c. 58312–13His grandfather transfers him to Syria
c. 59524–25Meets and marries Khadijah
c. 59928–29Birth of Zainab, his first daughter, followed by: RuqayyahUmm Kulthum, and Fatima Zahra
61040Qur'anic revelation begins in the Cave of Hira on the Jabal an-Nour, the "Mountain of Light" near Mecca. At age 40, Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) was said to appear to Muhammad

রাসূলﷺ

 on the mountain and call him "the Prophet of Allah"
Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca
c. 61343Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans
c. 61443–44Heavy persecution of Muslims begins
c. 61544–45Emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia
c. 61645–46Banu Hashim clan boycott begins
61949Banu Hashim clan boycott ends
The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die
c. 62049–50Isra and Mi'raj (reported ascension to heaven to meet God)
62251–52Hijra, emigration to Medina (called Yathrib)
62453–54Battle of Badr
62554–55Battle of Uhud
62756–57Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina)
62857–58The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina sign a 10-year truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
63059–60Conquest of Mecca
63261–62Farewell pilgrimage, event of Ghadir Khumm, and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia

Abu al-Qasim Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim[50] was born in Mecca[51] about the year 570[1] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-awwal.[52] He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca's prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 early lifetime.[16][53] Tradition places the year of Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha, Yemen's king, who supplemented his army with elephants.[54][55][56] Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569.[8]

Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.[58] According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's historicity.[59] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan.[59][60] For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim.[8] According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."[61]

In his teens, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade.[61] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 career as a prophet of God.[62]

Little is known of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend.[61] It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea."[63] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين), meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and "al-Sadiq" meaning "truthful"[64] and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.[9][16][65] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.[63]

Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who comes through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.[66][67]

Beginnings of the Quran

Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 began to pray alone in a cave named Hira on Mount Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca for several weeks every year.[68][69] Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to that cave, in the year 610 the angel Gabriel appeared to him and commanded Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 to recite verses that would be included in the Quran.[70] Consensus exists that the first Quranic words revealed were the beginning of Quran 96:1.[71] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was deeply distressed upon receiving his first revelations. After returning home, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraka ibn Nawfal.[72] He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed.[39] Shi'a tradition states Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was not surprised or frightened at Gabriel's appearance; rather he welcomed the angel, as if he was expected.[73] The initial revelation was followed by a three-year pause (a period known as fatra) during which Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 felt depressed and further gave himself to prayers and spiritual practices.[71] When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: "Thy Guardian-Lord hath not forsaken thee, nor is He displeased."[74][75][76]

Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 describing his revelations as "sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell". Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)".[77] According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine, since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.[16] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.[78] According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70,[79] Quran 6:19).[80] Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities (Quran 41:13–16).[81] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 did not only warn those who rejected God's revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listening to the divine words and serving God.[82] Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God.[81]

The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of the dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise, and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not committing female infanticide.[16]

Opposition

According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.[83] She was followed by Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.[83] Around 613, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 began to preach to the public (Quran 26:214).[11][84] Most Meccans ignored and mocked him, though a few became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.[85]

According to Ibn Saad, opposition in Mecca started when Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the polytheism practiced by the Meccan forefathers.[86] However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 started public preaching.[87] As his followers increased, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Ka'aba, the focal point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

threatened to overthrow. Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.[85] Powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

to abandon his preaching; he was offered admission to the inner circle of merchants, as well as an advantageous marriage. He refused both of these offers.[85]

Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment towards Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 and his followers.[16] Sumayyah bint Khayyat, a slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl, is famous as the first martyr of Islam; killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.[88][89]

In 615, some of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[16] Ibn Sa'ad mentions two separate migrations. According to him, most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra, while a second group rejoined them in Medina. Ibn Hisham and Tabari, however, only talk about one migration to Ethiopia. These accounts agree that Meccan persecution played a major role in Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 decision to suggest that a number of his followers seek refuge among the Christians in Abyssinia. According to the famous letter of ʿUrwa preserved in al-Tabari, the majority of Muslims returned to their native town as Islam gained strength and high ranking Meccans, such as Umar and Hamzah converted.[90]

However, there is a completely different story on the reason why the Muslims returned from Ethiopia to Mecca. According to this account—initially mentioned by Al-Waqidi then rehashed by Ibn Sa'ad and Tabari, but not by Ibn Hisham and not by Ibn Ishaq[91]—Muhammad,রাসূলﷺ

 desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe, pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah. Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 retracted the verses the next day at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself. Instead, a ridicule of these gods was offered.[92][n 3][n 4] This episode, known as "The Story of the Cranes," is also known as "Satanic Verses". According to the story, this led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

and the Meccans, and the Abyssinia Muslims began to return home. When they arrived Gabriel had informed Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 that the two verses were not part of the revelation, but had been inserted by Satan. Notable scholars at the time argued against the historic authenticity of these verses and the story itself on various grounds.[93][94][n 5] Al-Waqidi was severely criticized by Islamic scholars such as Malik ibn Anasal-Shafi'iAhmad ibn HanbalAl-Nasa'ial-BukhariAbu DawoodAl-Nawawi and others as a liar and forger.[95][96][97][98] Later, the incident received some acceptance among certain groups, though strong objections to it continued onwards past the tenth century. The objections continued until rejection of these verses and the story itself eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position.[99]

In 616 (or 617), the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.[100][101] During this time, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was able to preach only during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs were suspended.

Isra and Mi'raj

Islamic tradition states that in 620, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 experienced the Isra and Mi'raj, a miraculous night-long journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel. At the journey's beginning, the Isra, he is said to have traveled from Mecca on a winged steed to "the farthest mosque." Later, during the Mi'raj, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoke with earlier prophets, such as AbrahamMoses, and Jesus.[103] Ibn Ishaq, author of the first biography of Muhammad,রাসূলﷺ

 presents the event as a spiritual experience; later historians, such as Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir, present it as a physical journey.[103]

Some western scholars[who?] hold that the Isra and Mi'raj journey traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); later traditions indicate Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem.[104][page needed]

Last years before Hijra

Muhammad'sরাসূলﷺ

 wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the "Year of Sorrow". With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

. Soon afterward, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection over Muhammad.রাসূলﷺ

 This placed Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 in danger; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 then visited Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.[16][101] Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im ibn Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native city.[16][101]

Many people visited Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina).[16] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there.[16] They also hoped, by the means of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage. Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is known as the "Second Pledge of al-'Aqaba", or, in Orientalists' view, the "Pledge of War".[106] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.[107]

Hijra

hideTimeline of Muhammad

রাসূলﷺ

 in Medina
62453–54Invasion of Sawiq
Al Kudr Invasion
Raid on Dhu Amarr, Muhammad

রাসূলﷺ

raids Ghatafan tribes
62554–55Battle of Uhud: Meccans defeat Muslims
Invasion of Hamra al-Asad, successfully terrifies the enemy to cause a retreat
Assassination of Khaled b. Sufyan
Tragedy of al Raji and Bir Maona
Banu Nadir expelled after Invasion
62655–56Expedition of Badr al-Maw'idDhat al-Riqa and Dumat al-Jandal
62756–57Battle of the Trench
Invasion of Banu Qurayza, successful siege
62857–58Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, gains access to Kaaba
Conquest of the Khaybar oasis
62958–59First hajj pilgrimage
Attack on Byzantine Empire fails: Battle of Mu'tah
63059–60Bloodless conquest of Mecca
Battle of Hunayn
Siege of Ta'if
Attack on Byzantine Empire successful: Expedition of Tabuk
63160–61Rules most of the Arabian peninsula
63261–62Farewell hajj pilgrimage
Death, on June 8 in Medina

The Hijra is the migration of Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Medina,[108] 450 kilometres (280 miles) north of Mecca.[109]

Migration to Medina

A delegation, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community; due to his status as a neutral outsider.[110][111] There was fighting in Yathrib: primarily the dispute involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants, and was estimated to have lasted for around a hundred years before 620.[110] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal concept of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.[110] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.[16]

Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina, until nearly all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad.রাসূলﷺ

 With the help of Ali, Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 fooled the Meccans watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.[112] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 became known as muhajirun (emigrants).[16]

Establishment of a new polity

Among the first things Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 did to ease the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was to draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca; this specified rights and duties of all citizens, and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including the Muslim community to other communities, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book").[110][111] The community defined in the Constitution of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook, also shaped by practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.[16]

The first group of converts to Islam in Medina were the clans without great leaders; these clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside.[113] This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, with some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.[114] Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (supporters).[16] Then Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the supporters and he chose Ali as his own brother.[115]

Beginning of armed conflict

Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to Medina.[116] War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans (see sura Al-Hajj, Quran 22:39–40).[117] According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Medina, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.[118]

Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the Raid of Nakhla, resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners.[119] In March 624, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr.[120] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced.[121] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.[122] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed.[123][124][125] Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith[16] and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels. The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.[126]

The victory strengthened Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers.[127] As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe and Abu 'Afak of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims.[128] They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

did not disapprove of the killings.[128] This report, however, is considered by some to be a fabrication.[129] Most members of those tribes converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained.[130]

Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes,[16] but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad' রাসূলﷺ

 death.[131] According to al-Waqidi, after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina.[132] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hejaz.[16]

Conflict with Mecca

The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr.[133] In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Medina while Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 led expeditions against tribes allied with Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan.[134] Abu Sufyan gathered an army of 3000 men and set out for an attack on Medina.[135]

A scout alerted Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccan camp) and fought the Battle of Uhud on 23 March 625.[136][137] Although the Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed, including Hamza, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 uncle who became one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca declaring victory. The announcement is probably because Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

was wounded and thought dead. When they discovered that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 lived, the Meccans did not return due to false information about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.[138][139] The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

delivered Quranic verses 3:152 indicating that the defeat was twofold: partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a test for steadfastness.[140]

Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Medina. He gained support from the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina; using propaganda about Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery.[141] Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 new policy was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against Medina were formed, he sent out expeditions to break them up.[141] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, and reacted in a severe manner.[142] One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.[143][144] Around a year later, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina[145] forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 in the name of God as it was not gained with bloodshed. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force, causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 attempts to prevent a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stopped many potential tribes from joining his enemies.[146]

Siege of Medina

With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks.[147] Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home.[148] The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27.[87] During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located to the south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 scouts.[149] After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.[150][151] Walid N. Arafat and Barakat Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq's narrative.[152] Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his contemporary Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later Ibn Hajar.[153] Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved.[154][155] Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while Meir J. Kister has contradicted[clarification needed] the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.[156]

In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished.[157] Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting.[16] While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ 

 wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur).[158]

Truce of Hudaybiyyah

Although Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj,[160] the Muslims had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of the Hajj.[161] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside Mecca.[162] According to Watt, although Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was also demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did not threaten the prestige of the sanctuaries, that Islam was an Arabian religion.[162]

Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" or the "Pledge under the Tree". News of Uthman's safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.[162][164] The main points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 pilgrimage to the following year, and agreement to send back any Meccan who emigrated to Medina without permission from their protector.[162]

Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) (Quran 48:1–29) assured them that the expedition must be considered a victorious one.[165] It was later that Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 followers realized the benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to identify Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as an equal, cessation of military activity allowing Medina to gain strength, and the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the pilgrimage rituals.[16]

After signing the truce, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, or to regain prestige from what appeared as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.[135][166] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 also sent letters to many rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).[16][167][168] He sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.[167][168] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 directed his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah.[169]

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

The truce of Hudaybiyyah was enforced for two years.[170][171] The tribe of Banu Khuza'a had good relations with Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had allied with the Meccans.[170][171] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few of them.[170][171] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.[170] After this event, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were: either the Meccans would pay blood money for the slain among the Khuza'ah tribe, they disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah null.[172]

The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition.[172] Soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by Muhammad. 

রাসূলﷺ

Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

began to prepare for a campaign.[173] In 630, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 seized control of Mecca.[174] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace".[175] Some of these were later pardoned.[176] Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 proceeded to destroy all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.[177][178] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 personally spared paintings or frescos of Mary and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that all pictures were erased.[179] The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.[87][180]

Conquest of Arabia

Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

. The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.[181] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.[16]

In the same year, Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

organized an attack against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah and reports of hostility adopted against Muslims. With great difficulty he assembled 30,000 men; half of whom on the second day returned with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 hurled at them. Although Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 did not engage with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.[16][182]

He also ordered the destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city to hold out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was Taif. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 refused to accept the city's surrender until they agreed to convert to Islam and allowed men to destroy the statue of their goddess Al-Lat.[119][183][184]

A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 to safeguard against his attacks and to benefit from the spoils of war.[16] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain independence: namely their code of virtue and ancestral traditions. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 required a military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy."[185]

Farewell pilgrimage

In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Medina, Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

completed his first true Islamic pilgrimage, setting precedent for the annual Great Pilgrimage, known as Hajj.[16] On the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

delivered his Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. For instance, he said a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black any superiority over a white except by piety and good action.[186] He abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 asked his male followers to "be good to women, for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God's trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words ..." He told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and forbade his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.[187][188] According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you" (Quran 5:3).[16] According to Shia tafsir, it refers to the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Medina.[189]

Death and tomb

A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.[190] With his head resting on Aisha's lap, he asked her to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then spoke his final words:

O Allah, to Ar-Rafiq Al-A'la (exalted friend, highest Friend or the uppermost, highest Friend in heaven).[191][192][193]

রাসূলﷺ

According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 death may be presumed to have been caused by Medinan fever exacerbated by physical and mental fatigue.[194] Academics Reşit Haylamaz and Fatih Harpci say that Ar-Rafiq Al-A'la is referring to God.[195]

Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 was buried where he died in Aisha's house.[16][196][197] During the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid Ial-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 tomb.[198] The Green Dome above the tomb was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[199] Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 are those of his companions (Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.[197][200][201]

When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation.[202] Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,[202] and the one of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 is reported to have narrowly escaped.[203] Similar events took place in 1925, when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.[204][205][206] In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.[203] Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat—a ritual visit—to the tomb.[207][208]

After Muhammad 

রাসূলﷺ

Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 united several of the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.[18] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's  রাসূলﷺ

friend and collaborator. With additional support Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[209]

The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The Roman–Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims many Christians (NestoriansMonophysitesJacobites and Copts) were disaffected from the Eastern Orthodox Church which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims conquered MesopotamiaByzantine SyriaByzantine Egypt,[210] large parts of Persia, and established the Rashidun Caliphate.

Islamic social reforms

According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 was not a private and individual matter but "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject."[211] Bernard Lewis says there are two important political traditions in Islam—Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as a rebel in Mecca. In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies.[212]

Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status quo of Arab society.[212][213] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents".[which?][212] Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 message transformed society and moral orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.[214][page needed] Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.[215] The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.[216][217]

Appearance

In Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 al-Bukhari's book Sahih al-Bukhari, in Chapter 61, Hadith 57 & Hadith 60,[218][219] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 is depicted by two of his companions thus:

God's Messenger was neither very tall nor short, neither absolutely white nor deep brown. His hair was neither curly nor lank. God sent him (as a Messenger) when he was forty years old. Afterwards he resided in Mecca for ten years and in Medina for ten more years. When God took him unto Him, there was scarcely twenty white hairs in his head and beard.

The Prophet was of moderate height having broad shoulders (long) hair reaching his ear-lobes. Once I saw him in a red cloak and I had never seen anyone more handsome than him.

The description given in Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi's book Shama'il al-Mustafa, attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hind ibn Abi Hala is as follows:[220][221][222]

Muhammad 

রাসূলﷺ

 was middle-sized, did not have lank or crisp hair, was not fat, had a white circular face, wide black eyes, and long eye-lashes. When he walked, he walked as though he went down a declivity. He had the "seal of prophecy" between his shoulder blades ... He was bulky. His face shone like the moon. He was taller than middling stature but shorter than conspicuous tallness. He had thick, curly hair. The plaits of his hair were parted. His hair reached beyond the lobe of his ear. His complexion was azhar [bright, luminous]. Muhammad 

রাসূলﷺ

 had a wide forehead, and fine, long, arched eyebrows which did not meet. Between his eyebrows there was a vein which distended when he was angry. The upper part of his nose was hooked; he was thick bearded, had smooth cheeks, a strong mouth, and his teeth were set apart. He had thin hair on his chest. His neck was like the neck of an ivory statue, with the purity of silver. Muhammad 

রাসূলﷺ

 was proportionate, stout, firm-gripped, even of belly and chest, broad-chested and broad-shouldered.

The "seal of prophecy" between Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 shoulders is generally described as having been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon's egg.[221] Another description of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 was provided by Umm Ma'bad, a woman he met on his journey to Medina:[223][224]

I saw a man, pure and clean, with a handsome face and a fine figure. He was not marred by a skinny body, nor was he overly small in the head and neck. He was graceful and elegant, with intensely black eyes and thick eyelashes. There was a huskiness in his voice, and his neck was long. His beard was thick, and his eyebrows were finely arched and joined together. When silent, he was grave and dignified, and when he spoke, glory rose up and overcame him. He was from afar the most beautiful of men and the most glorious, and close up he was the sweetest and the loveliest. He was sweet of speech and articulate, but not petty or trifling. His speech was a string of cascading pearls, measured so that none despaired of its length, and no eye challenged him because of brevity. In company he is like a branch between two other branches, but he is the most flourishing of the three in appearance, and the loveliest in power. He has friends surrounding him, who listen to his words. If he commands, they obey implicitly, with eagerness and haste, without frown or complaint.

Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels (Turkish: hilye), which in the 17th century developed into an art form of their own in the Ottoman Empire.[223]

Household

Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine[225][226]). Eleven of the thirteen marriages occurred after the migration to Medina.

At the age of 25, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old.[227] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.[228] Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.[229][230] After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.[158] Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 marriages after the death of Khadijah were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The women were either widows of Muslims killed in battle and had been left without a protector, or belonged to important families or clans with whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances.[231]

According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

,[158][232][233] with the marriage not being consummated until she had reached puberty at the age of nine or ten years old.[241] She was therefore a virgin at marriage.[232] Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha's age based on other sources of information, such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage.[247]

After migration to Medina, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, who was then in his fifties, married several more women.

Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.[248][249][250]

Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

Umm Kulthum bint Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 Zainab bint Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 and Qasim ibn Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.[251] Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 only daughter.[252] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, but the child died when he was two years old.[251]

Nine of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 wives survived him.[226] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.[158]

Muhammad's  রাসূলﷺ

descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifssyeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabicsharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.[253]

Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

bought, freed, and then adopted as his son. He also had a wetnurse.[254] According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".[255]

Legacy

Islamic tradition

Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in Shahadah: "I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 is a Messenger of God." The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Islamic belief is that ideally the Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it will be recited upon death. Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (adhan) and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[256]

In Islamic belief, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 is regarded as the last prophet sent by God.[257][258] Quran 10:37 states that "...it (the Quran) is a confirmation of (revelations) that went before it, and a fuller explanation of the Book—wherein there is no doubt—from The Lord of the Worlds." Similarly, Quran 46:12 states "...And before this was the book of Moses, as a guide and a mercy. And this Book confirms (it)...", while 2:136 commands the believers of Islam to "Say: we believe in God and that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which Moses and Jesus received, and which the prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered."

Muslim tradition credits Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 with several miracles or supernatural events.[259] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1–2 as referring to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.[260][261] Western historian of Islam Denis Gril believes the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

is identified with the Quran itself.[260]

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 was attacked by the people of Ta'if and was badly injured. The tradition also describes an angel appearing to him and offering retribution against the assailants. It is said that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

rejected the offer and prayed for the guidance of the people of Ta'if.[262]

The Sunnah represents actions and sayings of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 (preserved in reports known as Hadith) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

taught Muslims to offer each other, "may peace be upon you" (Arabic: as-salamu 'alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.[264]

Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

. Stories of Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, রাসূলﷺ

 Qasidat al-Burda ("Poem of the Mantle") by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power.[265] The Quran refers to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as "a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds" (Quran 21:107).[16] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth (see, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif).[16] Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.[266] When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, they usually follow it with the Arabic phrase ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam (may God honor him and grant him peace) or the English phrase peace be upon him.[267] In casual writing, the abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or PBUH (for the English phrase) are sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used ().

Sufism

The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.[268] Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

.[269]

Depictions

In line with the hadith's prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings, which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and Muhammad,রাসূলﷺ

 Islamic religious art is focused on the word.[270][271] Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures.[270][272] Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%).[273] While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 in the past,[274] Islamic depictions of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 are rare.[270] They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammadরাসূলﷺ

 with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.[272][275]

The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

.[275][276] During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events.[277] Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork" besides books.[278] In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early 16th century.[277] The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.[279] Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced.[277][280][281] Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad. রাসূলﷺ

[274] Illustrated accounts of the night journey (mi'raj) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.[282] During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated mi'raj books, with Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of graphic novels. Reproduced through lithography, these were essentially "printed manuscripts".[282] Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and offense.[274][275]

Medieval Christians

The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 stems from Byzantine sources. They indicate that both Jews and Christians saw Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as a false prophet.[283] Another Greek source for Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 is Theophanes the Confessor, a 9th-century writer. The earliest Syriac source is the 7th-century writer John bar Penkaye.[284]

According to Hossein Nasr, the earliest European literature often refers to Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 unfavorably. A few learned circles of Middle Ages Europe – primarily Latin-literate scholars – had access to fairly extensive biographical material about Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

. They interpreted the biography through a Christian religious filter, one that viewed Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

as a person who seduced the Saracens into his submission under religious guise.[16] Popular European literature of the time portrayed Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as though he were worshipped by Muslims, similar to an idol or a heathen god.[16]

In later ages, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 came to be seen as a schismatic: Brunetto Latini's 13th century Li livres dou tresor represents him as a former monk and cardinal,[16] and Dante's Divine Comedy (Inferno, Canto 28), written in the early 1300s, puts Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 and his son-in-law, Ali, in Hell "among the sowers of discord and the schismatics, being lacerated by devils again and again."[16]

European appreciation

After the Reformation, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 was often portrayed in a similar way.[16][285] Guillaume Postel  was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 when he argued that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.[16][286] Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 because "he did not deviate from the natural religion".[16] Henri de Boulainvilliers, in his Vie de Mahomed which was published posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.[16] He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the Romans and Persians, and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain.[287] Voltaire had a somewhat mixed opinion on Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

: in his play Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète he vilifies Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as a symbol of fanaticism, and in a published essay in 1748 he calls him "a sublime and hearty charlatan", but in his historical survey Essai sur les mœurs, he presents him as legislator and a conqueror and calls him an "enthusiast."[287] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his Social Contract (1762), "brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammadv রাসূলﷺ

 as a trickster and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers."[287] Emmanuel Pastoret published in 1787 his Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad,  রাসূলﷺ

in which he presents the lives of these three "great men", "the greatest legislators of the universe", and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the common view that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers "the most sublime truths of cult and morals"; it defines the unity of God with an "admirable concision." Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the "legislator of Arabia" was "a great man."[287] Napoleon Bonaparte admired Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 and Islam,[288] and described him as a model lawmaker and a great man.[289][290] Thomas Carlyle in his book Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History (1840) describes Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as "[a] silent great soul; [...] one of those who cannot but be in earnest".[291] Carlyle's interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 status as a great man in history.[292]

Ian Almond says that German Romantic writers generally held positive views of Muhammad: রাসূলﷺ

 "Goethe’s 'extraordinary' poet-prophet, Herder’s nation builder (...) Schlegel’s admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble 'a Koran of poetry')."[293] After quoting Heinrich Heine, who said in a letter to some friend that "I must admit that you, great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran... will not easily escape my memory", John Tolan goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 and Islam, being an ethnoreligious minority feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded Al-Andalus, and thus, "writing about Islam was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution and pogroms of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their non-Jewish neighbors."[294]

Modern historians

Recent writers such as William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell dismiss the idea that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 "was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith"[295] and Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity.[296] Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation.[297] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development.[298][299] Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.[16]

Other religions

Followers of the Baháʼí Faith venerate Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God". He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of the Adamic cycle, but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first Manifestation of the current cycle.[300][301]

Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets",[302] and Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

is considered an important prophet of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[303][304]

Criticism

Criticism of Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad  রাসূলﷺ

was decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for his unwarranted appropriation of Biblical narratives and figures,[305] vituperation of the Jewish faith,[305] and proclaiming himself as "the last prophet" without performing any miracle nor showing any personal requirement demanded in the Hebrew Bible to distinguish a true prophet chosen by the God of Israel from a false claimant; for these reasons, they gave him the derogatory nickname ha-Meshuggah (Hebrewמְשֻׁגָּע‬, "the Madman" or "the Possessed").[306][307][308] During the Middle Ages various[309][310][311][312] Western and Byzantine Christian thinkers considered Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 to be a perverted,[309][311] deplorable man,[309][311] a false prophet,[309][310][311] and even the Antichrist,[309][310] as he was frequently seen in Christendom as a heretic[313][309][310][311] or possessed by demons.[313][311] Some of them, like Thomas Aquinas, criticized Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 promises of carnal pleasure in the afterlife.[311]

Modern religious[309][314] and secular[315][316] criticism of Islam[314][315][316] has concerned Muhammad's রাসূলﷺ

 sincerity in claiming to be a prophet, his morality, his ownership of slaves,[317][318] his treatment of enemies, his marriages,[319] his treatment of doctrinal matters, and his psychological condition. Muhammad রাসূলﷺ

 has been accused of sadism and mercilessness—including the invasion of the Banu Qurayza tribe in Medina[320][321][322]—sexual relationships with slaves, and his marriage to Aisha when she was six years old,[319] which according to most estimates was consummated when she was nine.[323]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ He is referred to by many appellations, including Messenger of AllahThe Prophet Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    Allah's ApostleLast Prophet of Islam, and others; there are also many variant spellings of Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    , such as MohametMohammedMahamadMuhamad, and many others.
  2. ^ The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers Muhammad

    রাসূলﷺ

     to be the "Seal of the Prophets" (Khātam an-Nabiyyīn) and the last law-bearing Prophet, but not the last Prophet. See:
    • Simon Ross Valentine (2008). Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice. Columbia University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-85065-916-7.
    • "Finality of Prophethood | Hadhrat Muhammad 

      রাসূলﷺ

       (PUBH) the Last Prophet"
      Ahmadiyya Muslim CommunityArchived from the original on 24 July 2011.
    There are also smaller sects which believe Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     to be not the last Prophet:
    • The Nation of Islam considers Elijah Muhammad 

      রাসূলﷺ

       to be a prophet (source: African American Religious Leaders – p. 76, Jim Haskins, Kathleen Benson – 2008).
    • United Submitters International believe that Muhammad 

      রাসূলﷺ

       was the last prophet, but they also consider Rashad Khalifa to be a messenger. (Source: Daniel Pipes, Miniatures: Views of Islamic and Middle Eastern Politics, p. 98 (2004))
  3. ^ The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166
  4. ^ "Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    , Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35)
  5. ^ "Although, there could be some historical basis for the story, in its present form, it is certainly a later, exegetical fabrication. Sura LIII, 1–20 and the end of the sura are not a unity, as is claimed by the story, XXII, 52 is later than LIII, 2107 and is almost certainly Medinan; and several details of the story—the mosque, the sadjda, and others not mentioned in the short summary above do not belong to Meccan setting. Caetani and J. Burton have argued against the historicity of the story on other grounds. Burton concluded that the story was invented by jurists so that XXII 52 could serve as a Kuranic proof-text for their abrogation theories."("Kuran" in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404)

References

  1. Jump up to:a b c d e Conrad, Lawrence I. (1987). "Abraha and Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : some observations apropos of chronology and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition1". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies50 (2): 225–40. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00049016S2CID 162350288.
    • Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby (1901). Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan 

      রাসূলﷺ

       calendars: with rules and tables and explanatory notes on the Julian and Gregorian calendars
      . G. Bell. p. 465.
    • Hamidullah, Muhammad 

      রাসূলﷺ

       (February 1969). "The Nasi', the Hijrah Calendar and the Need of Preparing a New Concordance for the Hijrah and Gregorian Eras: Why the Existing Western Concordances are Not to be Relied Upon" (PDF)The Islamic Review & Arab Affairs: 6–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2012.
  2. ^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632 CE, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (primarily non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the Muslim conquest of Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker,The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Life and the Beginnings of Islam,
     page 248, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
  3. Jump up to:a b Alford T. Welch; Ahmad S. Moussalli; Gordon D. Newby (2009). "Muḥammad" 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's Messenger (rasūl Allāh), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind.
  4. ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
  5. ^ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
  6. ^ Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
  7. ^ "Early Years"Al-Islam.org. 18 October 2012. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  8. Jump up to:a b c Watt (1974), p. 7.
  9. Jump up to:a b Encyclopedia of World History (1998), p. 452
  10. ^ Howarth, Stephen. Knights Templar. 1985. ISBN 978-0-8264-8034-7 p. 199
  11. Jump up to:a b Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Mustafa Al-A'zami
     (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, pp. 26–27. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6.
  12. ^ "Islam: An Overview – Oxford Islamic Studies Online"www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  13. ^ Anis Ahmad (2009). "Dīn". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 5 December 2017. A second important aspect of the meaning of the term emerges in Meccan revelations concerning the practice of the Prophet Abraham. Here it stands for the straight path (al-dīn al-ḥanīf) toward which Abraham and other messengers called the people [...] The Qurʿān asserts that this was the path or practice followed by Abraham [...] In the final analysis, dīn encompasses social and spiritual, as well the legal and political behaviour of the believers as a comprehensive way of life, a connotation wider than the word "religion."
  14. ^ F.E. Peters (2003), p. 9.
  15. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p. 25; (2002) pp. 4–5
  16. Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muḥammad" 

    রাসূলﷺ

    Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 360–376. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.
  17. ^ "Muhammad" 

    রাসূলﷺ

    , Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world
  18. Jump up to:a b See:
    • Holt (1977a), p. 57
    • Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32
  19. ^ "Muhammad" 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Archived 15 December 2014 at the Wayback MachineRandom House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  20. ^ Jean-Louis Déclais, Names of the ProphetEncyclopedia of the Quran
  21. ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān"Encyclopædia Britannica OnlineArchived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  22. ^ Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, p. 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
  23. ^ Quran 17:106 Quran 17:106
  24. ^ Clinton Bennett (1998). In search of Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 18–19.
     ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015.
  25. ^ Francis E. Peters (1994). Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     and the origins of Islam
    . SUNY Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-7914-1876-5. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
  26. Jump up to:a b Watt (1953), p. xi
  27. ^ Reeves (2003), pp. 6–7
  28. Jump up to:a b S.A. Nigosian (2004), p. 6
  29. ^ Donner (1998), p. 132
  30. ^ Holland, Tom (2012). In the Shadow of the Sword. Doubleday. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-7481-1951-6. Things which it is disgraceful to discuss; matters which would distress certain people; and such reports as I have been told are not to be accepted as trustworthy - all these things have I omitted. [Ibn Hashim, p. 691.]
  31. ^ Watt (1953), p. xv
  32. Jump up to:a b Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34
  33. ^ Jonathan, A.C. Brown (2007). The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon. Brill Publishers. p. 9. ISBN 978-90-04-15839-9. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. We can discern three strata of the Sunni ḥadīth canon. The perennial core has been the Ṣaḥīḥayn. Beyond these two foundational classics, some fourth-/tenth-century scholars refer to a four-book selection that adds the two Sunans of Abū Dāwūd (d. 275/889) and al-Nāsaʾī (d. 303/915). The Five Book canon, which is first noted in the sixth/twelfth century, incorporates the Jāmiʿ of al-Tirmidhī (d. 279/892). Finally, the Six Book canon, which hails from the same period, adds either the Sunan of Ibn Mājah (d. 273/887), the Sunan of al-Dāraquṭnī (d. 385/995) or the Muwaṭṭaʾ of Mālik b. Anas (d. 179/796). Later ḥadīth compendia often included other collections as well. None of these books, however, has enjoyed the esteem of al-Bukhārīʼs and Muslimʼs works.
  34. ^ Madelung (1997), pp. xi, 19–20
  35. ^ Nurullah Ardic (21 August 2012), Islam and the Politics of Secularism, Routledge, p. 99, ISBN 978-1-136-48984-6, archived from the original on 22 January 2018
  36. ^ Watt (1953), pp. 1–2
  37. ^ Watt (1953), pp. 16–18
  38. ^ Loyal Rue, Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological,2005, p. 224
  39. Jump up to:a b John Esposito, Islam, Expanded edition, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–5
  40. ^ See:
    • Esposito, Islam, Extended Edition, Oxford University Press, pp. 5–7
    • Quran 3:95
  41. ^ Ueberweg, Friedrich. History of Philosophy, Vol. 1: From Thales to the Present Time. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 409. ISBN 978-1-4400-4322-2.
  42. ^ Kochler (1982), p. 29
  43. ^ cf. Uri RubinHanif, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
  44. ^ See:
    • Louis Jacobs (1995), p. 272
    • Turner (2005), p. 16
  45. ^ Dever, William G. (10 May 2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2126-3.
  46. ^ Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. pp. 297–299. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016.
  47. Jump up to:a b c d Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016.
  48. ^ Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. pp. 286–287. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
  49. Jump up to:a b c Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. Archived from the original on 17 May 2016.
  50. ^ Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Archived 9 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 15 February 2017
  51. ^ Rodinson, Maxime (2002). Muhammad: 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Prophet of Islam
    . Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-86064-827-4. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  52. ^ Esposito, John L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. p. 198ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
  53. ^ See also Quran 43:31 cited in EoI; Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

  54. ^ Marr J.S., Hubbard E., Cathey J.T. (2014): The Year of the Elephant. figshare. doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.1186833 Retrieved 21 October 2014 (GMT)
  55. ^ The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity; edited by Scott Fitzgerald Johnson; p. 287
  56. ^ Muhammad

    রাসূলﷺ

     and the Origins of Islam
    ; by Francis E. Peters; p. 88
  57. ^ Ali, Wijdan (August 1999). "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's  

    রাসূলﷺ

    Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art"
     (PDF)Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art (7): 3. ISSN 0928-6802. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2004.
  58. ^ Meri, Josef W. (2004). Medieval Islamic civilization. Vol. 1. Routledge. p. 525. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
  59. Jump up to:a b Watt, "Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine", Encyclopaedia of Islam.
  60. ^ Watt, AminaEncyclopaedia of Islam
  61. Jump up to:a b c Watt (1974), p. 8.
  62. ^ Armand Abel, BahiraEncyclopaedia of Islam
  63. Jump up to:a b Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History (2005), v. 3, p. 1025
  64. ^ Khan, Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     the final messenger
     (1998 ed.). India: Islamic Book Service. p. 332. ISBN 978-81-85738-25-3.
  65. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 6
  66. ^ Dairesi, Hırka-i Saadet; Aydin, Hilmi (2004). Uğurluel, Talha; Doğru, Ahmet (eds.). The Sacred Trusts: Pavilion of the Sacred Relics, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul. Tughra Books. ISBN 978-1-932099-72-0.
  67. ^ Muhammad

    রাসূলﷺ

     Mustafa Al-A'zami
     (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, p. 24. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6.
  68. ^ Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 6
  69. ^ John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland (1904), p. 83
  70. ^ Brown (2003), pp. 72–73
  71. Jump up to:a b 96:1 Wensinck, A.J.; Rippen, A. (2002). "Waḥy". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 11 (2nd ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. p. 54. ISBN 978-90-04-12756-2.
  72. ^ Esposito (2010), p. 8
  73. ^ See:
    • Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 7
    • Rodinson (2002), p. 71
  74. ^ Quran 93:3
  75. ^ Brown (2003), pp. 73–74
  76. ^ Uri Rubin, Muhammad

    রাসূলﷺ

     Encyclopedia of the Quran
  77. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". Cmje.org. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
  78. ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 31.
  79. ^ 38:70
  80. ^ 6:19
  81. Jump up to:a b Uri Rubin, Muhammad,

    রাসূলﷺ

     Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
  82. ^ Daniel C. Peterson, Good NewsEncyclopedia of the Quran
  83. Jump up to:a b Watt (1953), p. 86
  84. ^ Ramadan (2007), pp. 37–39
  85. Jump up to:a b c Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 36
  86. ^ F.E. Peters (1994), p. 169
  87. Jump up to:a b c Uri Rubin, QurayshEncyclopaedia of the Qur'an
  88. ^ Jonathan E. Brockopp, Slaves and SlaveryEncyclopedia of the Qur'an
  89. ^ W. Arafat, Bilal b. RabahEncyclopedia of Islam
  90. ^ Horovitz, Josef (1927). "The Earliest Biographies of the Prophet and Their Authors". Islamic Culture1 (2): 279–284. doi:10.1163/157005807780220576.
  91. ^ "Muḥammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    ", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. J. BearmanTh. BianquisC. E. BosworthE. van DonzelW. P. Heinrichs et al. Brill Online, 2014
  92. ^ The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     (2010), p. 35
  93. ^ "Kuran" in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404
  94. ^ "Muḥammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    ", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. J. BearmanTh. BianquisC. E. BosworthE. van DonzelW. P. Heinrichs et al. Brill Online, 2014
  95. ^ W.N. Arafat (1976), New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, pp. 101–107
  96. ^ Rizwi Faizer (31 October 2005), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, p. 754, ISBN 978-1-135-45596-5, archived from the original on 27 February 2017
  97. ^ Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     in History, Thought, and Culture
    , ABC-CLIO, 25 April 2014, p. 279, ISBN 978-1-61069-178-9, archived from the original on 19 March 2017
  98. ^ Sayyid Saeed Akhtar Rizvi (1975), The Quran and Hadith, p. 109, ISBN 978-9976-956-87-0, archived from the original on 22 January 2018
  99. ^ Shahab Ahmed, "Satanic Verses" in the Encyclopedia of the Qur'an.
  100. ^ F.E. Peters (2003b), p. 96
  101. Jump up to:a b c Moojan Momen (1985), p. 4
  102. ^ Oleg Grabar (1 October 2006). The Dome of the Rock. Harvard University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-674-02313-0. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
  103. Jump up to:a b Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p. 482
  104. ^ Sells, Michael. AscensionEncyclopedia of the Quran.
  105. ^ Jonathan M. Bloom; Sheila Blair (2009). The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture. Oxford University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
  106. ^ Watt (1974), p. 83
  107. ^ Peterson (2006), pp. 86–89
  108. ^ Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Mustafa Al-A'zami
     (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, pp. 30–31. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6.
  109. ^ Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Mustafa Al-A'zami
     (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, p. 29. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6.
  110. Jump up to:a b c d Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 39
  111. Jump up to:a b Esposito (1998), p. 17
  112. ^ Moojan Momen (1985), p. 5
  113. ^ Watt (1956), p. 175.
  114. ^ Watt (1956), p. 177
  115. ^ "Ali ibn Abitalib"Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 12 August 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2007.
  116. ^ Fazlur Rahman (1979), p. 21
  117. ^ John Kelsay (1993), p. 21
  118. ^ William Montgomery Watt (7 February 1974). Muhammad: 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Prophet and Statesman
    . Oxford University Press. pp. 112–14ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  119. Jump up to:a b Ibn Ishaq (translated by Guillaume, A. 1955) The Life of Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 281–287
  120. ^ Rodinson (2002), p. 164
  121. ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 45
  122. ^ Glubb (2002), pp. 179–86
  123. ^ Lewis (2002), p. 41.
  124. ^ Watt (1961), p. 123
  125. ^ Rodinson (2002), pp. 168–69
  126. ^ Lewis(2002), p. 44
  127. ^ Russ Rodgers, The Generalship of Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : Battles and Campaigns of the Prophet of Allah
     (University Press of Florida; 2012) ch 1
  128. Jump up to:a b Watt (1956), p. 178
  129. ^ Maulana Muhammad  

    রাসূলﷺ

    Ali, Muhammad  

    রাসূলﷺ

    The Prophet
    , pp. 199–200
  130. ^ Watt (1956), p. 179
  131. ^ Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad

    রাসূলﷺ

     John Wiley and Sons. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-7456-5488-1.
  132. ^ Faizer, Rizwi (2010). The Life of Muhammad: 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Al-Waqidi's Kitab al-Maghazi
    . Routledge. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-136-92113-1.
  133. ^ Watt (1961), p. 132.
  134. ^ Watt (1961), p. 134
  135. Jump up to:a b Lewis (1960), p. 45
  136. ^ C.F. Robinson, UhudEncyclopedia of Islam
  137. ^ Watt (1964), p. 137
  138. ^ Watt (1974), p. 137
  139. ^ David Cook (2007), p. 24
  140. ^ See:
    • Watt (1981), p. 432
    • Watt (1964), p. 144
  141. Jump up to:a b Watt (1956), p. 30.
  142. ^ Watt (1956), p. 34
  143. ^ Watt (1956), p. 18
  144. ^ Rubin, Uri (1990). "The Assassination of Kaʿb b. al-Ashraf". Oriens32 (1): 65–71. doi:10.2307/1580625JSTOR 1580625.
  145. ^ Watt (1956), pp. 220–21
  146. ^ Watt (1956), p. 35
  147. ^ Watt (1956), pp. 36, 37
  148. ^ See:
    • Rodinson (2002), pp. 209–11
    • Watt (1964), p. 169
  149. ^ Watt (1964) pp. 170–72
  150. ^ Peterson (2007), p. 126
  151. ^ Ramadan (2007), p. 141
  152. ^ Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, p. 754.
  153. ^ Arafat. "New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland1976: 100–07.
  154. ^ Ahmad, pp. 85–94.
  155. ^ Nemoy, "Barakat Ahmad's "Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     and the Jews", p. 325. Nemoy is sourcing Ahmad's Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     and the Jews
    .
  156. ^ Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza"
  157. ^ Watt (1956), p. 39
  158. Jump up to:a b c d e Watt, AishaEncyclopedia of Islam
  159. ^ Learning Islam 8. Islamic Services Foundation. 2009. p. D14. ISBN 978-1-933301-12-9.
  160. ^ Quran 2:196–210
  161. ^ Lings (1987), p. 249
  162. Jump up to:a b c d Watt, al- Hudaybiya or al-Hudaybiyya Encyclopedia of Islam
  163. ^ F.E. Peters (25 July 2005). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Volume I: The Peoples of God. Princeton University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-691-12372-1. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  164. ^ Lewis (2002), p. 42
  165. ^ Lings (1987), p. 255
  166. ^ Vaglieri, Khaybar, Encyclopedia of Islam
  167. Jump up to:a b Lings (1987), p. 260
  168. Jump up to:a b Khan (1998), pp. 250–251
  169. ^ F. Buhl, MutaEncyclopedia of Islam
  170. Jump up to:a b c d Khan (1998), p. 274
  171. Jump up to:a b c Lings (1987), p. 291
  172. Jump up to:a b Khan (1998), pp. 274–75
  173. ^ Lings (1987), p. 292
  174. ^ Watt (1956), p. 66.
  175. ^ The Message by Ayatullah Ja'far Subhani, chapter 48 Archived 2 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine referencing Sirah by Ibn Hisham, vol. II, page 409.
  176. ^ Rodinson (2002), p. 261.
  177. ^ Harold Wayne Ballard, Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002), p. 163
  178. ^ F.E. Peters (2003), p. 240
  179. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad

    রাসূলﷺ

    . A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah"
    . Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1. Retrieved 8 December 2011. Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.
  180. ^ Quran 110:1
  181. ^ Watt (1974), p. 207
  182. ^ M.A. al-Bakhit, TabukEncyclopedia of Islam
  183. ^ Haykal, M.H. (1933) The Life of Muhammad, 

    রাসূলﷺ

     translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi. The Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs, Cairo, Egypt and University of Chicago.
  184. ^ Husayn, M.J. Biography of Imam 'Ali Ibn Abi-Talib, Translation of Sirat Amir Al-Mu'minin, Translated by: Sayyid Tahir Bilgrami, Ansariyan Publications, Qum, Islamic Republic of Iran
  185. ^ Lewis (1993), pp. 43–44
  186. ^ Sultan, Sohaib (March 2011). The Koran For DummiesJohn Wiley and SonsISBN 978-0-7645-5581-7.
  187. ^ Devin J. StewartFarewell Pilgrimage, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
  188. ^ Al-Hibri (2003), p. 17
  189. ^ See:
    • Tabatabae, Tafsir Al-Mizan, vol. 9, pp. 227–47 Archived 11 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
    • "Comparing the Tafsir of various exegetes". Tafseer Comparison. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
  190. ^ The Last Prophet Archived 23 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, p. 3. Lewis Lord of U.S. News & World Report. 7 April 2008.
  191. ^ Reşit Haylamaz (2013). The Luminous Life of Our Prophet. Tughra Books. p. 355. ISBN 978-1-59784-681-3. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018.
  192. ^ Gülen, Fethullah (2000). Muhammad  

    রাসূলﷺ

    The Messenger of God
    . The Light, Inc. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-932099-83-6.
  193. ^ Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Volume 5). DARUSSALAM. 2003. p. 214. ISBN 978-9960-892-76-4.
  194. ^ Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    ". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 374. Then Mumammad suddenly fell ill, presumably of the ordinary Medina fever (al-Farazdak, ix, 13); but this was dangerous to a man physically and mentally overwrought.
  195. ^ Reşit Haylamaz; Fatih Harpci (7 August 2014). Prophet Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     – Sultan of Hearts – Vol 2
    . Tughra Books. p. 472. ISBN 978-1-59784-683-7.
  196. ^ Leila Ahmed (1986), 665–91 (686)
  197. Jump up to:a b F.E. Peters (2003), p. 90 Archived 22 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  198. ^ Ariffin, Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed (2005). Architectural Conservation in Islam: Case Study of the Prophet's Mosque. Penerbit UTM. p. 88. ISBN 978-983-52-0373-2.
  199. ^ "Prophet's Mosque". Archnet.org. 2 May 2005. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
  200. ^ "Isa", Encyclopedia of Islam
  201. ^ Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Adil; Kabbani, Shaykh Hisham (2002). The Path to Spiritual Excellence. ISCA. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-1-930409-18-7. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
  202. Jump up to:a b Weston, Mark (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     to the present
    . John Wiley and Sons. pp. 102–03. ISBN 978-0-470-18257-4. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016.
  203. Jump up to:a b Behrens-Abouseif, Doris; Vernoit, Stephen (2006). Islamic art in the 19th century: tradition, innovation, and eclecticism. Brill. p. 22. ISBN 978-90-04-14442-2. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015.
  204. ^ Weston, Mark (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     to the present
    . John Wiley and Sons. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-470-18257-4. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016.
  205. ^ Cornell, Vincent J. (2007). Voices of Islam: Voices of the spirit. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-275-98734-3. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016.
  206. ^ Ernst, Carl W. (2004). Following Muhammad: 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world
    . Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 173–74. ISBN 978-0-8078-5577-5. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016.
  207. ^ Bennett, Clinton (1998). In search of Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 182–83.
     ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015.
  208. ^ Clark, Malcolm (2011). Islam For Dummies. John Wiley and Sons. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-118-05396-6. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
  209. ^ See:
    • Holt (1977a), p. 57
    • Hourani (2003), p. 22
    • Lapidus (2002), p. 32
    • Esposito (1998), p. 36
    • Madelung (1996), p. 43
  210. ^ Esposito (1998), pp. 35–36
  211. ^ Cambridge History of Islam (1970), p. 30.
  212. Jump up to:a b c Lewis (1998) Archived 8 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  213. ^ * Watt (1974), p. 234
    • Robinson (2004), p. 21
    • Esposito (1998), p. 98
    • R. Walzer, Ak̲h̲lāḳEncyclopaedia of Islam Online
  214. ^ Islamic ethicsEncyclopedia of Ethics
  215. ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 34
  216. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 30
  217. ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 52
  218. ^ "Virtues and Merits of the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions"Sunnah.comArchived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  219. ^ "Virtues and Merits of the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions"Sunnah.comArchived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  220. ^ Ali Sultaan Asani; Kamal Abdel-Malek; Annemarie Schimmel (October 1995). Celebrating Muḥammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : images of the prophet in popular Muslim poetry
    . University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-050-5. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  221. Jump up to:a b Annemarie Schimmel (1985). And Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     is his messenger: the veneration of the Prophet in Islamic piety
    . University of North Carolina Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8078-1639-4. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  222. ^ Al-Tirmidhi, Shama'il Muhammadiyah 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Archived 26 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Book 1, Hadith 5 & Book 1, Hadith 7/8
  223. Jump up to:a b Omid Safi (17 November 2009). Memories of Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : why the Prophet matters
    . HarperCollins. pp. 273–274ISBN 978-0-06-123134-6. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  224. ^ Carl W. Ernst. Following Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World
    . p. 78.
  225. ^ See for example Marco Schöller, Banu QurayzaEncyclopedia of the Quran mentioning the differing accounts of the status of Rayhana
  226. Jump up to:a b Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Wives of the ProphetEncyclopedia of the Quran
  227. ^ Subhani, Jafar. "Chapter 9"The Message. Ansariyan Publications, Qom. Archived from the original on 7 October 2010.
  228. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 18
  229. ^ Bullough (1998), p. 119
  230. ^ Reeves (2003), p. 46
  231. ^ Momen (1985), p. 9
  232. Jump up to:a b c D. A. SpellbergPolitics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi BakrColumbia University Press, 1994, p. 40
  233. ^ Karen Armstrong, Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : A Biography of the Prophet
    , Harper San Francisco, 1992, p. 145
  234. ^ Karen ArmstrongMuhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : Prophet For Our Time
    , HarperPress, 2006, p. 105
  235. ^ Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    , North American Trust Publications (1976), p. 139
  236. ^ Barlas (2002), pp. 125–26
  237. ^ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: 

    রাসূলﷺ

     The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy
    . Oneworld Publications. pp. 143–44ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9.
  238. ^ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: 

    রাসূলﷺ

     The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy
    Oneworld Publications. p. 316. ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9. Evidence that the Prophet waited for Aisha to reach physical maturity before consummation comes from al-Ṭabarī, who says she was too young for intercourse at the time of the marriage contract;
  239. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari5:58:234Sahih al-Bukhari5:58:236Sahih al-Bukhari7:62:64Sahih al-Bukhari7:62:65Sahih al-Bukhari7:62:88Sahih Muslim8:33098:33108:331141:4915Sunan Abu Dawood41:4917
  240. ^ Tabari, Volume 9, Page 131; Tabari, Volume 7, Page 7
  241. ^ [158][232][234][235][236][237][238][239][240]
  242. ^ Barlas, Asma (2012). "Believing Women" in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an. University of Texas Press. p. 126. On the other hand, however, Muslims who calculate 'Ayesha's age based on details of her sister Asma's age, about whom more is known, as well as on details of the Hijra (the Prophet's migration from Mecca to Madina), maintain that she was over thirteen and perhaps between seventeen and nineteen when she got married. Such views cohere with those Ahadith that claim that at her marriage Ayesha had "good knowledge of Ancient Arabic poetry and genealogy" and "pronounced the fundamental rules of Arabic Islamic ethics.
  243. ^ "The Concept of Polygamy and the Prophet's Marriages (Chapter: The Other Wives)"Archived from the original on 7 February 2011.
  244. ^ Ali, Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     (1997). Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     the Prophet
    . Ahamadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-913321-07-2. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016.
  245. ^ Ayatollah Qazvini. "Ayesha married the Prophet when she was young? (In Persian and Arabic)". Archived from the original on 26 September 2010.
  246. ^ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: 

    রাসূলﷺ

     The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy
    . Oneworld Publications. pp. 146–47ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9.
  247. ^ [242][243][244][245][246]
  248. ^ Tariq Ramadan (2007), pp. 168–69
  249. ^ Asma Barlas (2002), p. 125
  250. ^ Armstrong (1992), p. 157
  251. Jump up to:a b Nicholas Awde (2000), p. 10
  252. ^ Ordoni (1990), pp. 32, 42–44.
  253. ^ "Ali". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  254. ^ Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya recorded the list of some names of Muhammad's 

    রাসূলﷺ

     female-slaves in Zad al-Ma'ad, Part I, p. 116
  255. ^ "Slavery in Islam". BBC. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2016.
  256. ^ Farah (1994), p. 135
  257. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 12.
  258. ^ Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and PracticesIndianaIndiana University Press. p. 17ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
  259. ^ A.J. Wensinck, Muʿd̲j̲izaEncyclopedia of Islam
  260. Jump up to:a b Denis Gril, MiraclesEncyclopedia of the Qur'an
  261. ^ Daniel Martin Varisco, MoonEncyclopedia of the Qur'an
  262. ^ "A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims" chapter "Muhammad's 

    রাসূলﷺ

     Visit to Ta’if
     Archived 26 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine" on al-islam.org
  263. ^ "Arabic Presentation Forms-A" (PDF)The Unicode Standard, Version 5.2. Mountain View, Ca.: Unicode, Inc. 1 October 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
  264. ^ Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    , Encyclopædia Britannica, p. 9
  265. ^ Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych (24 May 2010). The mantle odes: Arabic praise poems to the Prophet Muḥammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . Indiana University Press. p. xii.
     ISBN 978-0-253-22206-0. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2012.
  266. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Encyclopædia Britannica, Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    , p. 13
  267. ^ Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p. 212
  268. ^ J. Schacht, Fiḳh, Encyclopedia of Islam
  269. ^ Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    , Encyclopædia Britannica, pp. 11–12
  270. Jump up to:a b c Kees Wagtendonk (1987). "Images in Islam". In Dirk van der Plas (ed.). Effigies dei: essays on the history of religions. Brill. pp. 119–24. ISBN 978-90-04-08655-5. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  271. ^ John L. Esposito (2011). What everyone needs to know about Islam (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-19-979413-3. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015.
  272. Jump up to:a b F.E. Peters (10 November 2010). Jesus and Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives
    . Oxford University Press. pp. 159–61. ISBN 978-0-19-974746-7. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  273. ^ Safi2010 (2 November 2010). 2 November 2010. HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-123135-3. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  274. Jump up to:a b c Safi, Omid (5 May 2011). "Why Islam does (not) ban images of the Prophet"Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 February 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
  275. Jump up to:a b c Freek L. Bakker (15 September 2009). The challenge of the silver screen: an analysis of the cinematic portraits of Jesus, Rama, Buddha and Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . Brill. pp. 207–09.
     ISBN 978-90-04-16861-9. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  276. ^ Christiane Gruber (2009). "Between Logos (Kalima) and Light (Nur): Representations of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     in Islamic Painting"
    . In Gulru Necipoglu (ed.). Muqarnas. Vol. 26. Brill. pp. 234–35. ISBN 978-90-04-17589-1. Archived from the original on 11 July 2012.
  277. Jump up to:a b c Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 167ISBN 978-0-8122-4237-9.
  278. ^ Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 164–69. ISBN 978-0-8122-4237-9.
  279. ^ Christiane Gruber (2011). "When Nubuvvat encounters Valayat: Safavid painting of the "Prophet" Mohammad's Mi'raj, c. 1500–50". In Pedram Khosronejad (ed.). The Art and Material Culture of Iranian Shi'ism: Iconography and Religious Devotion in Shi'i Islam. I. B. Tauris. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-1-84885-168-9. Archived from the original on 2 January 2017.
  280. ^ Elizabeth Edwards; Kaushik Bhaumik (2008). Visual sense: a cultural reader. Berg. p. 344. ISBN 978-1-84520-741-0. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015.
  281. ^ D. Fairchild Ruggles (2011). Islamic Art and Visual Culture: An Anthology of Sources. John Wiley and Sons. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-4051-5401-7. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
  282. Jump up to:a b Ali Boozari (2010). "Persian illustrated lithographed books on the miʻrāj: improving children's Shi'i beliefs in the Qajar period". In Christiane J. Gruber; Frederick Stephen Colby (eds.). The Prophet's ascension: cross-cultural encounters with the Islamic mi'rāj tales. Indiana University Press. pp. 252–54. ISBN 978-0-253-35361-0. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015.
  283. ^ Kaegi, Walter Emil, Jr. (1969). "Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest". Church History38 (2): 139–42. doi:10.2307/3162702JSTOR 3162702S2CID 162340890, quoting from Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati 86–87
  284. ^ Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 10th edition (1970), p. 112.
  285. ^ Lewis (2002)
  286. ^ Warraq, Ibn (2007). Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's OrientalismPrometheus Books. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-61592-020-4. Indeed, [Postel's] greater tolerance for other religions was much in evidence in Παvθεvωδια: compostio omnium dissidiorum, where, astonishingly for the sixteenth century, he argued that Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

     ought to be esteemed even in Christendom as a genuine prophet.
  287. Jump up to:a b c d Brockopp, Jonathan E (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Muḥammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . New York: Cambridge UP. pp. 240–42. ISBN 978-0-521-71372-6.
  288. ^ Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena (1903), pp. 279–80
  289. ^ Brockopp, Jonathan E., ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge University Press.
     ISBN 978-0-521-71372-6. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013.
  290. ^ Younos, Farid (2010). Islamic Culture. Cambridge Companions to Religion. AuthorHouse. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4918-2344-6.
  291. ^ Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On heroes, hero worship and the heroic in history. London: James Fraser. p. 87.
  292. ^ Kecia Ali (2014). The Lives of Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    . Harvard UP. p. 48.
     ISBN 978-0-674-74448-6. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015.
  293. ^ Ian Almond, History of Islam in German Thought: From Leibniz to Nietzsche, Routledge (2009), p. 93
  294. ^ Tolan, John. "The Prophet Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    : A Model of Monotheistic Reform for Nineteenth-Century Ashkenaz." Common Knowledge, vol. 24 no. 2, 2018, pp. 256-279
  295. ^ Watt, Bell (1995) p. 18
  296. ^ Watt (1974), p. 232
  297. ^ Watt (1974), p. 17
  298. ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 37
  299. ^ Lewis (1993), p. 45.
  300. ^ Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. p. 251ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6.
  301. ^ "A Baháʼí Approach to the Claim of Finality in Islam"bahai-library.comArchived from the original on 19 June 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
  302. ^ C. Brockman, Norbert (2011). Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, 2nd Edition [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 259. ISBN 978-1-59884-655-3.
  303. ^ Hitti, Philip K. (1928). The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. Library of Alexandria. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-4655-4662-3.
  304. ^ Dana, Nissim (2008). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Michigan University press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9.
  305. Jump up to:a b

    The Jews [...] could not let pass unchallenged the way in which the Quran appropriated Biblical accounts and personages; for instance, its making Abraham an Arab and the founder of the Ka'bah at Mecca. The prophet, who looked upon every evident correction of his gospel as an attack upon his own reputation, brooked no contradiction, and unhesitatingly threw down the gauntlet to the Jews. Numerous passages in the Quran show how he gradually went from slight thrusts to malicious vituperations and brutal attacks on the customs and beliefs of the Jews. When they justified themselves by referring to the Bible, Muhammad  

    রাসূলﷺ

    — Richard Gottheil, Mary W. Montgomery, Hubert Grimme, "Mohammed" (1906), Jewish EncyclopediaKopelman Foundation.

    রাসূলﷺ

  306. রাসূলﷺ

  307. , who had taken nothing therefrom at first hand, accused them of intentionally concealing its true meaning or of entirely misunderstanding it, and taunted them with being "asses who carry books" (sura lxii. 5). The increasing bitterness of this vituperation, which was similarly directed against the less numerous Christians of Medina, indicated that in time Muhammad  

  308. would not hesitate to proceed to actual hostilities. The outbreak of the latter was deferred by the fact that the hatred of the prophet was turned more forcibly in another direction, namely, against the people of Mecca, whose earlier refusal of Islam and whose attitude toward the community appeared to him at Medina as a personal insult which constituted a sufficient cause for war.

  309. ^ Norman A. Stillman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Jewish Publication Society. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7.
  310. ^ Ibn WarraqDefending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism, p. 255.
  311. ^ Andrew G. Bostom, The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism: From Sacred Texts to Solemn History, p. 21.
  312. Jump up to:a b c d e f g Quinn, Frederick (2008). "The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600)". The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western ThoughtNew YorkOxford University Press. pp. 17–54. ISBN 978-0-19-532563-8.
  313. Jump up to:a b c d Goddard, Hugh (2000). "The First Age of Christian-Muslim Interaction (c. 830/215)". A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 34–41. ISBN 978-1-56663-340-6.
  314. Jump up to:a b c d e f g Curtis, Michael (2009). Orientalism and Islam: European Thinkers on Oriental Despotism in the Middle East and IndiaNew YorkCambridge University Press. p. 31ISBN 978-0-521-76725-5.
  315. ^ John of DamascusDe Haeresibus. See MignePatrologia Graeca, Vol. 94, 1864, cols 763–73. An English translation by the Reverend John W. Voorhis appeared in The Moslem World, October 1954, pp. 392–98.
  316. Jump up to:a b Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muḥammad" 

    রাসূলﷺ

    Encyclopaedia of Islam. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 360–376. ISBN 90-04-09419-9.
  317. Jump up to:a b Cimino, Richard (December 2005). ""No God in Common": American Evangelical Discourse on Islam after 9/11". Review of Religious Research47 (2): 162–74. doi:10.2307/3512048JSTOR 3512048.
  318. Jump up to:a b Ibn Warraq (2000). The Quest for the Historical Muhammad.

    রাসূলﷺ

      Amherst, New YorkPrometheus BooksISBN 978-1-57392-787-1.
  319. Jump up to:a b Robert Spencer (2006). The Truth About Muhammad

    রাসূলﷺ

     Washington, D.C.Regnery PublishingISBN 978-1-59698-028-0.
  320. ^ Gordon, Murray (1989). "The Attitude of Islam Toward Slavery"Slavery in the Arab WorldNew YorkRowman & Littlefield. pp. 18–47ISBN 978-0-941533-30-0.
  321. ^ Willis, John Ralph, ed. (2013). Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement. Vol. 1. New YorkRoutledge. pp. vii–xi, 3–26. ISBN 978-0-7146-3142-4.Willis, John Ralph, ed. (1985). Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: The Servile Estate. Vol. 2. New YorkRoutledge. pp. vii–xi. ISBN 978-0-7146-3201-8.
  322. Jump up to:a b

    During the twenty-five years of his union with Ḥadijah Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

    — Richard Gottheil, Mary W. Montgomery, Hubert Grimme, "Mohammed" (1906), Jewish EncyclopediaKopelman Foundation.

    রাসূলﷺ

  323. রাসূলﷺ

  324.  had no other wife; but scarcely two months had elapsed after her death (619) when he married Sauda, the widow of Sakran, who, with her husband, had become an early convert to Islam and who was one of the emigrants to Abyssinia. At about the same time Muhammad 

  325. রাসূলﷺ

  326. contracted an engagement with 'A'ishah, the six-year-old daughter of Abu Bakr, and married her shortly after his arrival at Medina. 'A'ishah was the only one of his wives who had not been previously married; and she remained his favorite to the end. [...] In his married life, as well as in his religious life, a change seems to have come over Muhammad 

    রাসূলﷺ

  327.  after his removal to Medina. In the space of ten years he took twelve or thirteen wives and had several concubines: even the faithful were scandalized, and the prophet had to resort to alleged special revelations from God to justify his conduct. Such was the case when he wished to marry Zainab, the wife of his adopted son Zaid.

  328. ^

    The messenger of God went out into the marketplace of Medina and had trenches dug in it; then he sent for them and had them beheaded in those trenches. They were brought out to him in groups. Among them were the enemy of God, Huyayy b. Akhtab, and Ka’b b. Asad, the head of the tribe. They numbered 600 or 700—the largest estimate says they were between 800 and 900. As they were being taken in groups to the Messenger of God, they said to Ka’b b. Asad, "Ka’b, what do you understand. Do you not see that the summoner does not discharge [anyone] and that those of you who are taken away do not come back? By God, it is death!" the affair continued until the Messenger of God had finished with them.

    — Al-TabariVictory of Islam, Volume 8, translated by Michael Fishbein (1997), State University of New York Press, pp. 35–36, ISBN 978-0-7914-3150-4.
  329. ^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1 July 1952). "The Condemnation of the Jews of Banu Qurayzah". The Muslim World42 (3): 160–71. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1952.tb02149.xISSN 1478-1913.
  330. ^ Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur (2005), The Sealed Nectar, Darussalam Publications, pp. 201–05, ISBN 9798694145923, They [the Jews killed] numbered 600 or 700—the largest estimate says they were between 800 and 900.
  331. ^ Spellberg, Denise A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr. Columbia University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-231-07999-0.

Bibliography

Encyclopedias

Further reading

Books

Articles

Online

External links


Tags :

bm

WelftionWelfareNewsUpdate

Seo Construction

I like to make cool and creative designs. My design stash is always full of refreshing ideas. Feel free to take a look around my Vcard.

  • WelftionWelfareNewsUpdate
  • February 04
  • 145/7 Welftion Office Road,Welftion City,Muslim kingdom
  • contact@welftion.com
  • +8809638608760

একটি মন্তব্য পোস্ট করুন

ওয়েলফশন মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ যা বিশ্বের কল্যাণকামী মানুষের সম্মিলিত সংগঠন।
যার লক্ষ্য কল্যাণকামীদের একত্রিত করা,শিক্ষা অনুরাগী, কল্যাণ অনুরাগী, জ্ঞান অনুরাগী এবং কল্যাণের জন্য একতাবদ্ধ হতে আকাঙ্ক্ষীদের নিয়ে সততা ও ন্যায়নিষ্ঠার সাথে একতাবদ্ধ হয়ে মানবতার কল্যাণে কাজ করে, সুন্দর সমাজ গড়া। শিক্ষা সচেতনতার প্রচার করা। বিশ্বে শিক্ষা, সততা ও কল্যাণের প্রসার এবং উন্নয়নের মাধ্যমে মানুষের জীবন মানের উন্নয়ন ঘটানো ওয়েলফশনের প্রধান লক্ষ ।
Welfare,Education,Lead,Friend,Truth,Indagator,Organization,Necessary
WELFTION